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Reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or a specialized air gun. By noting the time it takes for a reflection to arrive at a receiver, it is possible to estimate the depth of the feature that generated the reflection. In this way, reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
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Exploration geophysics is the applied branch of geophysics which uses deep and primarily near surface methods to probe or image the earth. ...
Seismology (from the Greek seismos = earthquake and logos = word) is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth. ...
Adjectives: Terrestrial, Terran, Telluric, Tellurian, Earthly Atmosphere Surface pressure: 101. ...
The reflection of a bridge in Indianapolis, Indianas Central Canal. ...
Body waves and surface waves Earthquake wave paths p-wave and s-wave from seismograph A seismic wave is a wave that travels through the Earth, most often as the result of a tectonic earthquake, sometimes from an explosion. ...
A seismic source generates controlled seismic energy that is used in both reflection and refraction seismic surveys. ...
Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin, initially using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an adsorbent. ...
Air guns are weapons that propel a bullet using compressed air or another gas, possibly liquefied. ...
The F70 type frigates (here, La Motte-Picquet) are fitted with VDS (Variable Depth Sonar) type DUBV43 or DUBV43C towed sonars SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging) — or sonar — is a technique that uses sound propagation under water (primarily) to navigate, communicate or to detect other vessels. ...
See: Animal echolocation: animals emitting sound waves and listening to the echo in order to locate objects or navigate. ...
Applications
Reflection seismology is extensively used in exploration for hydrocarbons (i.e., petroleum , natural gas) and other resources as coal, ores and minerals, geothermal. Reflection seismology is also used for basic research into the nature and origin of the rocks making up the Earth's crust. Reflection Seismology is also used in shallow application for engineering, groundwater and environmental surveying. A method similar to reflection seismology which uses electromagnetic instead of elastic waves is known as Ground-penetrating radar or GPR. GPR is widely used for mapping shallow subsurface (up to a few meters deep). Hydrocarbons are refined at oil refineries and processed at chemical plants A hydrocarbon is a chemical compound that consists only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). ...
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ...
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but including significant quantities of ethane, butane, propane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide. ...
Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...
Iron ore (Banded iron formation) Manganese ore Lead ore Gold ore An ore is a volume of rock containing components or minerals in a mode of occurrence which renders it valuable for mining. ...
Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ...
Geothermal power is electricity generated by utilizing naturally occurring geological heat sources. ...
The rocky side of a mountain creek near OrosÃ, Costa Rica. ...
Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. ...
A ground-penetrating radar data image, generated as part of the search for the head of Yagan within a grave site in Everton Cemetery in 1997. ...
Hydrocarbon exploration Reflection seismology, or 'seismic' as it is more commonly referred to by the oil industry, is used to map the subsurface structure of rock formations. Seismic technology is used by geologists and geophysicists who interpret the data to map structural traps that could potentially contain hydrocarbons. Seismic exploration is the primary method of exploring for hydrocarbon deposits, on land, under the sea and in the transition zone (the interface area between the sea and land). Although the technology of exploration activities has improved exponentially in the past 20 years, the basic principles for acquiring seismic data have remained the same. This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...
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In simple terms and for all of the exploration environments, the general principle is to send sound energy waves (using an energy source like dynamite or Vibroseis) into the Earth, where the different layers within the Earth's crust reflect back this energy. These reflected energy waves are recorded over a predetermined time period (called the record length) by using hydrophones in water and geophones on land. The reflected signals are output onto a storage medium, which is usually magnetic tape. The general principle is similar to recording voice data using a microphone onto a tape recorder for a set period of time. Once the data is recorded onto tape, it can then be processed using specialist software which will result in processed seismic profiles being produced. These profiles or data sets can then be interpreted for possible hydrocarbon reserves. Vibroseis is a method used in exploration seismology to propagate energy signals into the earth over an extended period of time as opposed to the near instantaneous energy provided by an impulsive source such as explosives or weight-drop trucks. ...
Naturally enough, the three primary exploration environments for seismic exploration are land, the transition zone and marine (shallow and deep water):
Land - The land environment is self explanatory, but can cover just about every type of terrain that exists on Earth (such as jungle, desert, arctic tundra, swamp, forest, urban settings, mountain regions and savannah).
Transition Zone (TZ) - The transition zone is considered to be the transition area between the land and sea and can present unique challenges depending on the location. This may involve setting source and receiver stations across river deltas, in swamps, across coral reefs, on beach tidal areas and in the surf zone. TZ crews often work on land, in the transition zone and in the shallow water marine environment on a single project.
Marine - The marine zone is either in shallow water areas (water depths of less than 30 to 40 metres would normally be considered shallow water areas for 3D marine seismic operations) or in the deep water areas normally associated with the seas and oceans (such as the North Sea or the Gulf of Mexico).
What parameters are used for each acquisition project depends on a significant number of variables specific to a particular area. For example, in the marine environment the choice of a tuned air gun array will depend on the known sub-sea geology, data from previous seismic surveys, the depth at which the main features of geological interest exist within the Earth, the desired frequency output of the source array, the amount of energy or power required and so on. For the land environment, the source choice is normally between drilled dynamite shot holes or mechanical vibrators. Again, the choice will depend on the specific geology and characteristics of the prospect area but can also be influenced by non geophysical issues, such as terrain, security issues especially for explosive use and storage and local environmental concerns (such as working in protected areas, working close to buildings and structures or in national parks etc).
Land Land crews tend to be quite large entities, employing anywhere from a few hundred to a few thousand people. They normally require substantial logistical support to cover not only the seismic operation itself, but also to support the main camp (for catering, waste management and disposal, camp accommodations, washing facilities, water supply, laundry etc), fly camps (temporary camps set up away from the main camp on large land seismic operations, for example where the distance is too far to drive back to the main camp with vibrator trucks), all of the crews vehicles (maintenance, fuel, spares etc), security, possible helicopter operations, restocking of the explosive magazine, medical support and many other logistical and support functions.
Outside of the camp personnel, the basic components of a seismic land crew are the surveyors, layout and loading crew, shooters and recorders and the pick up crew. The general principle is for the surveyors to survey in shot and receiver points on source and receiver lines (the latitude and longitude coordinates of which are pre-determined by the client / contractor) using mobile GPS stations. When a shot or receiver point is reached, this position will be staked out or marked with the shot or receiver station number and line number.
Once sufficient lines of shot and receiver points have been surveyed in and shot holes have been drilled to the appropriate depth, loaders put explosive charges into the shot holes on the source lines (according to the project specification) and the receiver stations will be laid out with geophone spreads on the receiver lines. When corresponding shot and receiver lines are ready, the shooters prepare a single shot hole ready for firing, whilst the recording shack will be hooked up to the geophone spread laid on the corresponding receiver line to record the reflected data. Once a charge is ready to be shot, the recording shack initiates the shot hole firing sequence via a radio link and records the seismic data from the whole geophone spread onto magnetic medium. Once a shot is completed, the shooters move to the next shot hole and the shoot / record sequence begins again.
Once lines have been shot, loaders continue to load shot holes on new source lines and the pick up crews pick up and relay geophone spreads onto new receiver lines as required in the acquisition plan. For vibrator crews, aka "Vibroseis" (vibrations are created by the computer-coordinated vibration of hydraulically controlled plates on vibrator trucks), the vibrator trucks move from shot hole to shot hole on the designated source line instead of the loaders and shooters. Vibroseis is a method used in exploration seismology to propagate energy signals into the earth over an extended period of time as opposed to the near instantaneous energy provided by an impulsive source such as explosives or weight-drop trucks. ...
 Receiver line on a desert land crew with recorder truck Land surveys require crews to deploy the hundreds or thousands of geophones necessary to record the data. Most surveys today are conducted by laying out a two-dimensional array of geophones together with a two-dimensional pattern of source points. This allows the interpreter to create a three-dimensional image of the geology beneath the array, so these are called 3D surveys. Less expensive survey methods use one-dimensional lines of geophones that only allowed the interpreter to make two-dimensional cross-sections. Image File history File linksMetadata No higher resolution available. ...
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This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
Marine (streamer)
Marine seismic acquisition using towed streamer Deep water marine surveys are conducted using vessels capable of towing one or more seismic cables known as "streamers" (see figure). Modern 3D surveys use multiple streamers deployed in parallel, to record data suitable for the three-dimensional interpretation of the structures beneath the sea bed. A single vessel may tow anything up to 10+ streamers, each 6 km+ in length, spaced 50–150 m apart. Hydrophones are deployed at regular intervals within each streamer. These hydrophones are used to record sound signals which are reflected back from structures within the rock. To accurately calculate where subsurface features are located, navigators compute the position of both the sound source and each hydrophone group which records the signal. The positioning accuracy required is achieved using a combination of acoustic networks, compasses and GPS receivers (often used with a radio correction applied call a differential GPS or DGPS). Image File history File links Hydro-seismic. ...
Image File history File links Hydro-seismic. ...
Image File history File links Size of this preview: 560 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (648 × 694 pixel, file size: 46 KB, MIME type: image/png) Hart, Patrick et al, High-Resolution Multichannel Seismic-Reflection Data Acquired in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, 1998-99, http://geopubs. ...
Image File history File links Size of this preview: 560 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (648 × 694 pixel, file size: 46 KB, MIME type: image/png) Hart, Patrick et al, High-Resolution Multichannel Seismic-Reflection Data Acquired in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, 1998-99, http://geopubs. ...
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Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective. ...
A hydrophone is a sound-to-electricity transducer for use in water or other liquids, analogous to a microphone for air. ...
A hydrophone is a sound-to-electricity transducer for use in water or other liquids, analogous to a microphone for air. ...
For the tool used to draw circles, see Compass (drafting). ...
Over fifty GPS satellites such as this NAVSTAR have been launched since 1978. ...
Marine (OBC) Shallow water marine surveys are conducted using sensors attached to an Ocean Bottom Cable (OBC) laid out on the ocean bottom rather than in towed streamers. Due to operational limitations, this type of surveys can be conducted up to depths of about 70 meters. One operational advantage is that obstacles (such as platforms) do not affect the acquisition as much as they do for streamer surveys. Most of the OBC surveys use dual component receivers, combining a pressure sensor (hydrophone) and a vertical particle velocity sensor (vertical geophone). OBC surveys can also use 4 component, i.e. those 2 components plus the 2 horizontal velocity sensors. 4 component OBC surveys have the advantage of being able to record shear waves, which do not travel through water. Multiple component OBC surveys hence lead to improved imaging. Animated map exhibiting the worlds oceanic waters. ...
A hydrophone is a sound-to-electricity transducer for use in water or other liquids, analogous to a microphone for air. ...
This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
Body waves and surface waves Earthquake wave paths p-wave and s-wave from seismograph A seismic wave is a wave that travels through the Earth, most often as the result of a tectonic earthquake, sometimes from an explosion. ...
Crustal studies The use of reflection seismology in studies of tectonics and the Earth's crust was pioneered by groups such as the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) [1],[2]. The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. ...
Outline of the method Seismic waves are a form of elastic wave that travel in the Earth. Any medium that can support wave propagation may be described as having an impedance (see Acoustic impedance and Electromagnetic impedance. The seismic (or acoustic) impedance Z is defined by the equation Body waves and surface waves Earthquake wave paths p-wave and s-wave from seismograph A seismic wave is a wave that travels through the Earth, most often as the result of a tectonic earthquake, sometimes from an explosion. ...
Look up elastic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
The acoustic impedance Z (or sound impedance) is the ratio of sound pressure p to particle velocity v in a medium or acoustic component. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
- Z= V ρ,
where V is the seismic wave velocity and ρ (Greek rho) is the density of the rock. When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two different materials with different impedances, some of the energy of the wave will be reflected off the boundary, while some of it will be transmitted through the boundary. Wave velocity is a general concept, of various kinds of wave velocities, for an electromagnetic waves phase and speed concerning energy (and information) propagation. ...
Rho (upper case Ρ, lower case Ï) is the 17th letter of the Greek alphabet. ...
In physics, density is mass m per unit volume V. For the common case of a homogeneous substance, it is expressed as: where, in SI units: Ï (rho) is the density of the substance, measured in kg·m-3 m is the mass of the substance, measured in kg V is...
In common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of inverse problem. That is, given a set of data collected by experimentation and the physical laws that apply to the experiment, the experimenter wishes to develop an abstract model of the physical system being studied. In the case of reflection seismology, the experimental data are recorded seismograms, and the desired result is a model of the structure and physical properties of the Earth's crust. In common with other types of inverse problems, the results obtained from reflection seismology are usually not unique (more than one model adequately fits the data) and may be sensitive to relatively small errors in data collection, processing, or analysis. For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a reflection seismic survey. An inverse problem is the task that often occurs in many branches of science and mathematics where the values of some model parameter(s) must be obtained from the observed data. ...
In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, of (or from) trying), is a set of actions of going to the bathroom. ...
An abstract model (or conceptual model) is a theoretical construct that represents physical, biological or social processes, with a set of variables and a set of logical and quantitative relationships between them. ...
Reflection experiments A reflection experiment is carried out by initiating a seismic source (such as a dynamite explosion) and recording the reflected waves using one or more seismometers. On land, the typical seismometer used in a reflection experiment is a small, portable instrument known as a geophone, which converts ground motion into an analog electrical signal. In water, hydrophones, which convert pressure changes into electrical signals, are used. As the seismometers detect the arrival of the seismic waves, the signals are converted to digital form and recorded; early systems recorded the analog signals directly onto magnetic tape, photographic film, or paper. The signals may then be displayed by a computer as seismograms for interpretation by a seismologist. Typically, the recorded signals are subjected to significant amounts of signal processing and various imaging processes before they are ready to be interpreted. In general, the more complex the geology of the area under study, the more sophisticated are the techniques required to perform the data processing. Modern reflection seismic surveys require large amounts of computer processing, often performed on supercomputers or on computer clusters. Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin, initially using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an adsorbent. ...
Seismometer (in Greek seismos = earthquake and metero = measure) are used by seismologists to measure and record the size and force of seismic waves. ...
This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
An analog or analogue signal is any continuously variable signal. ...
A hydrophone is a sound-to-electricity transducer for use in water or other liquids, analogous to a microphone for air. ...
The use of water pressure - the Captain Cook Memorial Jet in Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra. ...
A digital system is one that uses discrete values (often electrical voltages), especially those representable as binary numbers, or non-numeric symbols such as letters or icons, for input, processing, transmission, storage, or display, rather than a continuous spectrum of values (ie, as in an analog system). ...
Compact audio cassette Magnetic tape is a non-volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating on a thin plastic strip. ...
A seismogram is a graph output by a seismograph. ...
Seismology (from the Greek seismos = earthquake and logos = word) is the scientific study of earthquakes and the movement of waves through the Earth. ...
Signal processing is the processing, amplification and interpretation of signals, and deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. ...
A supercomputer is a computer that leads the world in terms of processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation, at the time of its introduction. ...
An example of a Computer cluster A computer cluster is a group of loosely coupled computers that work together closely so that in many respects they can be viewed as though they are a single computer. ...
Interpretation of reflections The time it takes for a reflection from a particular boundary to arrive at the geophone is called the travel time. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock is known, then the travel time may be used to estimate the depth to the reflector. For a simple vertically traveling wave, the travel time t from the surface to the reflector and back is given by the formula Wave velocity is a general concept, of various kinds of wave velocities, for an electromagnetic waves phase and speed concerning energy (and information) propagation. ...
 , where d is the depth of the reflector and V is the wave velocity in the rock.
A series of apparently related reflections on several seismograms is often referred to as a reflection event. By correlating reflection events, a seismologist is able create an estimated cross-section of the geologic structure that generated the reflections. Interpretation of large surveys is usually performed with programs using high-end three dimensional computer graphics. This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...
Computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science and is concerned with digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. ...
Reflection and transmission When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two materials with different impedances, some of the energy in the wave will be reflected at the boundary, while some of the energy will continue through the boundary. The amplitude of the reflected wave is predicted by multiplying the amplitude of the incoming wave by the seismic reflection coefficient R, determined by the impedance contrast between the two materials. Amplitude is a nonnegative scalar measure of a waves magnitude of oscillation, that is, magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium during one wave cycle. ...
The term reflection coefficient is used in physics and electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. ...
The acoustic impedance Z (or sound impedance) is the ratio of sound pressure p to particle velocity v in a medium or acoustic component. ...
For a wave that hits a boundary at normal incidence (head-on), the expression for the reflection coefficient is simply A surface normal, or just normal to a flat surface is a three-dimensional vector which is perpendicular to that surface. ...
 , where Z0 and Z1 are the impedance of the first and second medium, respectively.
Similarly, the amplitude of the incoming wave is multiplied by the transmission coefficient to predict the amplitude of the wave transmitted through the boundary. The formula for the normal-incidence transmission coefficient is This article is about the transmission coefficient in optics. ...
 . From this, it is easy to show that  . By observing changes in the strength of reflectors, seismologists can infer changes in the seismic impedances. In turn, they use this information to infer changes in the properties of the rocks at the interface, such as density and elastic modulus. In physics, density is mass m per unit volume V. For the common case of a homogeneous substance, it is expressed as: where, in SI units: Ï (rho) is the density of the substance, measured in kg·m-3 m is the mass of the substance, measured in kg V is...
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substances tendency to be deformed when a force is applied to it. ...
For non-normal incidence (at an angle), a phenomenon known as mode conversion occurs. Longitudinal waves (P-waves) are converted to transverse waves (S-waves) and vice versa. The transmitted energy will be bent, or refracted, according to Snell's law. The expressions for the reflection and transmission coefficients are found by applying appropriate boundary conditions to the wave equation, a topic beyond the scope of this article. The resulting formulas, first determined at the beginning of the 20th century, are known as the Zoeppritz equations. The reflection and transmission coefficients govern the signal strength (amplitude) at each reflector. The coefficients at a given angle of incidence vary with (among many other things) the fluid content of the rock. Practical use of non-normal incidence phenomona, known as AVO (amplitude versus offset)has been facilitated by theoretical work to derive workable approximations to the Zoeppritz equations, and by advances in computer processing capacity. AVO studies attempt with some success to predict the fluid content (oil, gas, or water) of potential reservoirs, to lower the risk of drilling unproductive wells and to identify new petroleum reservoirs. Longitudinal waves are waves that have vibrations along or parallel to their direction of travel. ...
Plane P-wave Representation of the propagation of a P-wave on a 2d grid (empirical shape) One of the two types of elastic body waves (named because they travel through the body of the Earth) that are produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismometers. ...
A light wave is an example of a transverse wave. ...
A type of seismic wave, the S-wave moves in a shear or transverse wave, so motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. ...
The straw seems to be broken, due to refraction of light as it emerges into the air. ...
Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with n2 > n1. ...
In mathematics, boundary conditions are imposed on the solutions of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations, to fit the solutions to the actual problem. ...
The wave equation is an important partial differential equation that describes a variety of waves, such as sound waves, light waves and water waves. ...
In seismology, the Zoeppritz equations describe how seismic waves are transmitted and reflected at media boundaries. ...
In seismology, the Zoeppritz equations describe how seismic waves are transmitted and reflected at media boundaries. ...
Environmental impact As with all human activities, reflection seismic experiments may impact the Earth's natural environment. On land, conducting a seismic survey may require the building of roads in order to transport equipment and personnel. Even if roads are not required, vegetation may need to be cleared for the deployment of geophones. If the survey is in a relatively undeveloped area, significant habitat disturbance may result. Many land crews now use helicopters instead of land vehicles in remote areas. Most countries require that seismic surveys are conducted according to environmental standards established by government regulation. Higher environmental standards have encouraged the development of lower impact seismic vehicles and acquisition methodologies. Similarly modern seismic processing techniques allow seismic lines to deviate around natural obstacles, or use pre-existing non-straight tracks and trails with less loss of data quality than would once have been the case. This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...
This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...
Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ...
A helicopter is an aircraft which is lifted and propelled by one or more large horizontal rotors (propellers). ...
The main environmental concern for marine surveys is the potential of seismic sources to disturb animal life, especially cetaceans such as whales, porpoises, and dolphins. These animals have sensitive hearing, and some scientists believe the underwater sound waves created by air guns might disturb the animals or even damage their ears. Research is ongoing into these questions. Companies acquiring marine seismic surveys often adopt voluntary standards for adapting or ceasing operations in the presence of certain animals. Suborders Mysticeti Odontoceti (see text) The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. ...
A Fin Whale The term whale is ambiguous: it can refer to all cetaceans, to just the larger ones, or only to members of particular families within the order Cetacea. ...
Genera Neophocaena Phocoena - Harbor porpoises Phocoenoides - Dalls Porpoises The porpoises are small cetaceans of the family Phocoenidae; they are related to whales and dolphins. ...
Genera See article below. ...
Bat ears come in different sizes and shapes The ear is the sense organ that detects sound. ...
Seismic surveys may also have a positive impact by reducing the number of unsuccessful wells drilled while exploring for hydrocarbon deposits and by increasing the amount of hydrocarbons produced from existing wells.
History Reflections of waves generated by earthquakes have been observed on seismograms since the beginning of modern seismology. Seismologists have been able to develop familiar models of the Earth's interior in part by observing these reflections from major boundaries deep within the earth. However, the history of the use of human-generated seismic waves to map in detail the geology of the Earth's crust is largely tied to commercial enterprise, particularly the petroleum industry. An earthquake is the result from the sudden release of stored energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. ...
While Ludger Mintrop, a German mine surveyor first proposed seismological methods for exploration and got his patent in 1916, the Canadian inventor Reginald Fessenden was the first to conceive of using reflected seismic waves to infer geology. He filed patents on the method in 1917 while working on methods of detecting submarines during World War I. Due to the war, he was unable to follow up on the idea. However, John Clarence Karcher discovered seismic reflections independently while working for the United States Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) on methods of sound ranging to detect artillery. In discussion with colleagues, the idea developed that these reflections could aid in exploration for petroleum. With several others, many affiliated with the University of Oklahoma, Karcher helped to form the Geological Engineering Company, incorporated in Oklahoma in April, 1920. The first field tests were conducted near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma in 1921. For other uses, see Inventor (disambiguation). ...
Reginald Aubrey Fessenden (October 6, 1866 – July 22, 1932) was a Canadian-born inventor, best known for his work in early radio. ...
Year 1917 (MCMXVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar (see link for calendar) or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar (see: 1917 Julian calendar). ...
USS Los Angeles A submarine is a specialized watercraft that can operate underwater. ...
This article is becoming very long. ...
NIST logo The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, formerly known as The National Bureau of Standards) is a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce’s Technology Administration. ...
Artillery with Gabion fortification Cannons on display at Fort Point Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772 – 1851) A forge-welded Iron Cannon in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. ...
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ...
University of Oklahoma, abbreviated OU, is a coeducational public research university located in the U.S. state of Oklahoma founded in 1890. ...
Official language(s) None Capital Oklahoma City Largest city Oklahoma City Area Ranked 20th - Total 69,960 sq mi (181,196 km²) - Width 230 miles (370 km) - Length 298 miles (480 km) - % water 1. ...
Year 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ...
Nickname: Capital of the New Century, O-K-C, O-City, O-C, Renaissance City Location in Oklahoma County and the state of Oklahoma. ...
The company soon folded due to a drop in the price of oil. In 1925, oil prices had rebounded, and Karcher helped to form Geophysical Research Corporation (GRC) as part of the oil company Amerada. In 1930, Karcher left GRC and helped to found Geophysical Service Incorporated (GSI). GSI was one of the most successful seismic contracting companies for over 50 years and was the parent of an even more successful company, Texas Instruments. Early GSI employee Henry Salvatori left that company in 1933 to found another major seismic contractor, Western Geophysical. As of 2005, after several mergers and acquisitions, the heritages of GSI and Western Geophysical still exist, along with several pioneering European companies such as GECO, Seismos, and Prakla, as part of the seismic contracting company WesternGeco. Many other companies using reflection seismology in hydrocarbon exploration, hydrology, engineering studies, and other applications have been formed since the method was first invented. Major service companies today include Compagnie Générale de Géophysique, Veritas DGC, and Petroleum Geo-Services. Most major oil companies also have actively conducted research into seismic methods as well as collected and processed seismic data using their own personnel and technology. Reflection seismology has also found applications in non-commercial research by academic and government scientists around the world. The Hess Corporation (NYSE: HES) is an integrated oil company based in New York City. ...
Geophysical Service Incorporated (often abbreviated GSI) was founded by John Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott in 1930 for the purpose of using refraction and reflection seismology to explore for petroleum deposits. ...
Texas Instruments (NYSE: TXN), better known in the electronics industry (and popularly) as TI, is an American company based in Dallas, Texas, USA, renowned for developing and commercializing semiconductor and computer technology. ...
Henry Salvatori (1901 – July 7, 1997) was born in Italy and immigrated with his family to the United States in 1906. ...
Western Geophysical was a company founded in California in 1933 by Henry Salvatori for the purpose of using reflection seismology to explore for petroleum. ...
WesternGeco, a joint venture of Schlumberger Limited and Baker Hughes, is the worlds largest seismic contracting company. ...
Water covers 70% of the Earths surface. ...
Engineering is the design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes. ...
This article reads like an advertisement. ...
Petroleum Geo-Services ASA NYSE: PGS, an oilfield service company, provides geophysical services worldwide and floating production services in the North Sea. ...
See also Deconvolution is a process used to reverse the effects of convolution on recorded data. ...
An image of seismic line which was originally encoded in the SEG Y format The SEG Y file format is one of several standards developed by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists for storing geophysical data. ...
Further reading The following books cover important topics in reflection seismology. Most require some knowledge of mathematics, geology, and/or physics at the university level or above. - Brown, Alistair R. (2004). Interpretation of three-dimensional seismic data, sixth ed., Society of Exploration Geophysicists and American Association of Petroleum Geologists. ISBN 0891813640.
- Biondi, B. (2006). 3d Seismic Imaging: Three Dimensional Seismic Imaging. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. ISBN 0-07-011117-0.
- Claerbout, Jon F. (1976). Fundamentals of geophysical data processing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 1560801379.
- Ikelle, Luc T. and Lasse Amundsen (2005). Introduction to Petroleum Seismology. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. ISBN 1-56080-129-8.
- Scales, John (1997). Theory of seismic imaging. Golden, Colorado: Samizdat Press.
- Yilmaz, Öz (2001). Seismic data analysis. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. ISBN 1-56080-094-1.
Further research in reflection seismology may be found particularly in books and journals of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, the American Geophysical Union, and the European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers. The Society of Exploration Geophysicists (or SEG) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the science of geophysics and the education of exploration geophysicists. ...
The American Geophysical Union (or AGU) is a nonprofit organization of geophysicists, consisting (as of 2006) of over 49,000 members from over 140 countries. ...
References - Biography of Henry Salvatori
- History of reflection seismology in Oklahoma
External links - Reflection Seismology Literature at Stanford Exploration Project
- Website of the International Association of Geophysical Contractors
- IAGC/OGP position paper on seismic surveys and marine mammals (PDF)
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