NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Regulamentul Organic

Regulamentul Organic (Romanian name, translated as Organic Statute or Organic Regulation; French: Règlement Organique, Russian: Oрганический регламент, Organichesky reglament)^[1] was a quasi-constitutional organic law enforced in 1831–1832 by the Imperial Russian authorities in Moldavia and Wallachia (the two Danubian Principalities that were to become the basis of the modern Romanian state). The official onset of a common Russian protectorate lasting until 1854, and itself officially in place until 1858, the document signified a partial confirmation of traditional government (including rule by the hospodars). Conservative in its scope, it also engendered a period of unprecedented reforms which provided a setting for the Westernization of local society. The Regulament offered the two Principalities their first common system of government. Image File history File links ObÅŸteasca_Adunare,_1837. ... Image File history File links ObÅŸteasca_Adunare,_1837. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: The National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... The Romanian Constitution is the fundamental law that establishes the structure of the government of Romania, the rights and obligations of the countrys citizens, and its mode of passing laws. ... The Laws of Nature are claimed in the United States Declaration of Independence to be the work of the Creator of unalienable rights identified as Natures God. ... Leopold I 1831 (MDCCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1832 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Anthem: God Save the Tsar! Russian Empire in 1914 Capital Saint Petersburg Language(s) Russian Government Monarchy Emperor - 1721-1725 Peter the Great - 1894-1917 Nicholas II History - Established 22 October, 1721 - February Revolution 2 March, 1917 Area - 1897 22,400,000 km2 8,648,688 sq mi Population - 1897... Moldavia (Moldova in Romanian) was a Romanian principality, originally created in the Middle Ages, now divided between Romania, Moldovan Republic and Ukraine. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... The Danubian Principalities was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia which emerged in the late 13th century and became the basis for the Romanian nation. ... Motto: none Anthem: DeÅŸteaptÄƒ-te, romÃ¢ne! Patron saint(s): Saint Andrew Capital Bucharest (BucureÅŸti) Largest city Bucharest Romanian Government Republic - President Traian BÄƒsescu - Prime Minister CÄƒlin Popescu-TÄƒriceanu Independence - Declared 9 May 1877 (O.S.)2 - Recognised 13 July 18783 Accession to EU January... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... 1854 (MDCCCLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Hospodar or gospodar is a term of Slavonic origin, meaning lord. The rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia (only occasionally joined) were styled hospodars in Slavic writings from the 15th century to 1866, alongside the title of voivod. ... Conservatism is a political philosophy that usually favors traditional values and strong foreign defense. ... Westernization (or westernisation) is a process whereby traditional, long-established societies come under the influence of Western culture in such matters as industry and technology, law, politics and economics, lifestyle and diet, language and the alphabet, religion and values. ...

Background

The two countries, placed under Ottoman Empire suzerainty since the 1400s, had been subject to frequent Russian interventions as early as the Russo-Turkish War of 1710-1711, when a Russian army penetrated Moldavia and Emperor Peter the Great established links with the Wallachians. The rebellious purpose of such alliances, and the fragility of Ottoman rule in face of competition by an Eastern Orthodox empire with claim to a Byzantine heritage, determined the Ottomans to enforce a tighter control, effected under Phanariote hospodars (who were appointed directly by the Porte).^[2] Image File history File links Flag_of_Romania. ... This article provides only a brief outline of each period of the History of Romania; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below). ... Prehistoric Romania is the period in the human occupation (including early hominins) of the geographical area encompassing present-day Romania, which extended through prehistory, and ended when the first written records appeared. ... Dacia, in ancient geography the land of the Daci, named by the ancient Greeks Getae, was a large district of Southeastern Europe, bounded on the north by the Carpathians, on the south by the Danube, on the west by the Tisa, on the east by the Tyras or Nistru, now... The provinces of the Roman Empire in 120, with Dacia highlighted. ... This article (also known as Romania in the Dark Ages) treats the history of Romania and of the Romanian people, and refers to the time period roughly from the 5th century to the 10th century, that is between the Hunnic invasion, to the last phase of the Age of Migrations. ... // Main article: Romania in the Dark Ages The Dark Ages in what is now Romania ended around the 11th century, following the period in which the Romanian lands had been part of the First Bulgarian Empire (802-1018). ... It has been suggested that Byzantium after Byzantium be merged into this article or section. ... During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in their own country. ... From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a personal union of two vassal principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) under a single prince to a full-fledged independent kingdom with a Hohenzollern monarchy. ... Anthem: TrÄƒiascÄƒ Regele Capital Bucharest Language(s) Romanian Government Constitutional monarchy Head of State - 1918 - 1927 Ferdinand I of Romania - 1927 - 1930 - 1930 - 1940 - 1940 - 1947 Michael I of Romania Carol II of Romania Michael I of Romania Legislature Adunarea DeputaÅ£ilor and Senatul Historical era Interbellum Years - Kingdom... After a brief period of nominal neutrality, Romania joined the Axis Powers in June 1941, under the government of Ion Antonescu. ... The Soviets pressed for inclusion of Romanias heretofore negligible Communist Party in the post-war government, while non-communist political leaders were steadily eliminated from political life. ... Combatants Communist Romania Ad hoc local Romanian militias Commanders Nicolae CeauÅŸescu Various independent militia leaders Casualties 1,104 deaths The Romanian Revolution of 1989 was a week-long series of riots and fighting in late December of 1989 that overthrew the Communist regime of Nicolae CeauÅŸescu. ... 1989 marked the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... An image of the extravagance attributed to Phanariotes in Wallachia: Nicholas Mavrogenes riding through Bucharest in a deer-drawn carriage (late 1780s) Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks (Greek: Î¦Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¹ÏŽÏ„ÎµÏ‚, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) were members of those prominent Greek families residing in Phanar[1] (Î¦Î±Î½Î¬ÏÎ¹, modern Fener),[2] the chief Greek quarter of... Motto: Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326) Bursa (1326-1365) Edirne (1365-1453) Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans - 1281â€“1326 Osman I - 1918â€“1922 Mehmed VI... Suzerainty refers to a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy but controls its foreign affairs. ... Russo-Turkish War of 1710-1711 was the southernmost theatre of the Great Northern War. ... At different times, a ruler in Kievan Rus/Muscovy/Imperial Russia bore the title of Kniaz (translated as Duke or Prince), Velikiy Kniaz (translated as Grand Duke, Grand Prince or Great Prince), Tsar, Emperor. ... Peter was a tall figure, with an extremely striking build of 2. ... The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian body that views itself as the historical continuation of the original Christian community established by Jesus and the Twelve Apostles, preserving the traditions of the early church unchanged, accepting the canonicity of the first seven ecumenical councils held between the 4th and the... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... An image of the extravagance attributed to Phanariotes in Wallachia: Nicholas Mavrogenes riding through Bucharest in a deer-drawn carriage (late 1780s) Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks (Greek: Î¦Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¹ÏŽÏ„ÎµÏ‚, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) were members of those prominent Greek families residing in Phanar[1] (Î¦Î±Î½Î¬ÏÎ¹, modern Fener),[2] the chief Greek quarter of... Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ...

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed in 1774 between the Ottomans and Russians, gave Russia the right to intervene on behalf of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects in general, a right which it used to sanction Ottoman interventions in the Principalities in particular. Thus, Russia intervened to preserve reigns of hospodars who had lost Ottoman approval in the context of the Napoleonic Wars (the casus belli for the 1806-1812 conflict),^[3] and remained present in the Danubian states, vying for influence with the Austrian Empire, well into the 19th century and annexing Moldavia's Bessarabia in 1812.^[4] At the same time, the Porte made several concessions to the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, as a means to ensure the preservation of its rule.^[5] The Treaty of KÃ¼Ã§Ã¼k Kaynarca (also spelled Kuchuk Kainarji) was signed on July 21, 1774, between the Russian Empire (represented by Field-Marshal Rumyantsev) and the Ottoman Empire after the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. ... Chesma Column in Tsarskoe Selo, commemorating the end of the Russo-Turkish War. ... Combatants Allies: Austria[1] Portugal Prussia[1] Russia[2] Spain[3] Sweden United Kingdom[4] French Empire Holland Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of Naples Duchy of Warsaw Bavaria[5] Saxony[6] Denmark [7] Commanders Archduke Charles Prince Schwarzenberg Karl Mack von Leiberich Gebhard von BlÃ¼cher Duke of Brunswick Prince... Casus belli is a modern Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war. ... The Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812 was one of many wars fought between Imperial Russia and Ottoman Empire. ... Anthem: Volkshymne (Peoples Anthem) Capital Vienna Language(s) German Religion Roman Catholic Government Monarchy History - Established 1804 - Disestablished 1867 Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy The Crown of the Austrian Emperor The Austrian Empire (German: ) was an empire centred on what is modern day Austria that officially lasted from 1804... 1927 map of Bessarabia from Charles Upson Clarks book Bessarabia or Bessarabiya (Basarabia in Romanian, Besarabya in Turkish, Ð‘ÐµÑÐ°Ñ€Ð°Ð±Ñ–Ñ in Ukrainian) is a historical term for the geographic entity in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the East and the Prut River on the West. ...

Despite the influx of Greeks, arriving in the Principalities as a new bureaucracy favored by the hospodars, the traditional Estates of the realm (the Divan) remained under the tight control of a number of high boyar families, who, while intermarrying with members of newly-arrived communities, opposed reformist attempts — and successfully preserved their privileges by appealing against their competitors to both Istanbul and Saint Petersburg.^[6] This page is about the sociological concept. ... In several different regions of medieval Europe, and continuing in some countries[] down to the present day, the estates of the realm were broad divisions of society, usually distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners; this last group was, in some regions, further divided into burghers (also known as bourgeoisie) and peasants. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: The National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. ... A boyar (also spelled bojar) or bolyarin was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Russian, Romanian and Bulgarian aristocracy, second only to the ruling princes, from the tenth through the seventeenth century. ... A privilegeâ€”etymologically private law or law relating to a specific individualâ€”is an honour, or permissive activity granted by another person or a government. ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: / KonstandinÃºpoli, historically known in English as Constantinople; see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural and financial center. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and...

In the last decades of the 18th century, the growing strategic importance of the region brought about the establishment of consulates representing European powers directly interested in observing local developments (Russia, the Austrian Empire, and France; later, British and Prussian ones were opened as well).^[7] An additional way for consuls to exercise particular policies was the awarding of a privileged status and protection to various individuals, who were known as sudiţi ("subjects", in the language of the time) of one or the other of the foreign powers.^[8] Image File history File links Rom1793-1812. ... Image File history File links Rom1793-1812. ... For the uses of Consul as Chief Magistrate of a (city) state, see Consul. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... People in Bucharest during the late 1700s The SudiÅ£i (plural of Sudit - Romanian language, from Italian suddito, meaning subject or citizen) were inhabitants of the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) who, for the latter stage of the 18th and a large part of the 19th century â€” during and after...

A seminal event occurred in 1821, when the rise of Greek nationalism in various parts of the Balkans in connection with the Greek War of Independence led to occupation of the two states by the Filiki Eteria, a Greek secret society who sought, and initially obtained, Russian approval. A mere takeover of the government in Moldavia, the Eterist expedition met a more complex situation in Wallachia, where a regency of high boyars attempted to have the anti-Ottoman Greek nationalists confirm both their rule and the rejection of Phanariote institutions. A compromise was achieved through their common support for Tudor Vladimirescu, an Oltenian pandur leader who had already instigated an anti-Phanariote rebellion (as one of the Russian sudiţi, it was hoped that Vladimirescu could assure Russia that the revolt was not aimed against its influence). However, the eventual withdrawal of Russian support made Vladimirescu seek a new agreement with the Ottomans, leaving him to be executed by an alliance of Eterists and weary locals (alarmed by his new anti-boyar program); after the Ottomans invaded the region and crushed the Eteria, the boyars, still perceived as a third party, obtained from the Porte an end to the Phanariote system^[9] (see also: Early Modern Romania#Russian Expansion). EugÃ¨ne Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Balkan peninsula with northwest border Isonzo-Krka-Sava The Balkans is the historic and geographic name used to describe a region of southeastern Europe. ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries, United Kingdom, Russia, France Ottoman Empire, Egyptian troops Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis, Alexander Ypsilanti Omer Vryonis, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. ... The Filiki Eteria (spelt also PhilikÃ EtaireÃa), meaning Friendly Society in Greek, was a secret organisation working in the early 19th century, whose purpose was to overthrow the Ottoman rule over Greece and to establish an independent Greek state. ... A secret society is an organization that requires its members to conceal certain activitiesâ€”such as rites of initiationâ€”from outsiders. ... Regency may have several meanings: A regency may be a period of time when a regent holds power in the name of the current monarch, or in the name of the Crown itself, if the throne is vacant. ... Tudor Vladimirescu (1780, Vladimiri - 27 May 1821 Târgovişte) was a Romanian revolutionary hero and the leader of the Wallachian uprising of 1821. ... Map of Romania with Oltenia highlighted Oltenia or Lesser Wallachia is a historical province of Romania. ... Pandurs in the Austrian army were created in the 18th century and they were a non-linear (irregular) infantry, whose main objective was to assassinate enemy officers, conduct guerrilla warfare, and to fight in extended formations. ... The Wallachian uprising of 1821 was an uprising in Wallachia (a region of Romania) which happened in 1821. ... It has been suggested that Byzantium after Byzantium be merged into this article or section. ...

Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople

The first reigns through locals — Ioniţă Sandu Sturdza as Prince of Moldavia and Grigore IV Ghica as Prince of Wallachia — were, in essence, short-lived: although the patron-client relation between Phanariote hospodars and a foreign ruler was never revived, Sturdza and Ghica were deposed by the Russian military intervention during the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829. Sturdza's time on the throne was marked by an important internal development: the last in a series of constitutional proposals,^[10] advanced by boyars as a means to curb princely authority, ended in a clear conflict between the rapidly-decaying class of low-ranking boyars (already forming the upper level of the middle class rather than a segment of the traditional nobility) and the high-ranking families who had obtained the decisive say in politics. The proponent, Ionică Tăutu,^[11] was defeated in the Divan after the Russian consul sided with the conservatives (expressing the official view that the aristocratic-republican and liberal aims of the document could have threatened international conventions in place).^[12] The Akkerman Convention was a treaty signed on October 7, 1826 between the Russian and the Ottoman Empires in the Budjak citadel of Akkerman (present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine). ... The 1829 peace treaty of Adrianople (called also Treaty of Edirne), was settled between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1010x762, 315 KB) [edit] Summary PD published in romanian 1938 edition, copyright expired since 1958 [edit] Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): GalaÅ£i Regulamentul Organic... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1010x762, 315 KB) [edit] Summary PD published in romanian 1938 edition, copyright expired since 1958 [edit] Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): GalaÅ£i Regulamentul Organic... Moldavia (Moldova in Romanian) was a Romanian principality, originally created in the Middle Ages, now divided between Romania, Moldovan Republic and Ukraine. ... The Danube (ancient Danuvius, ancient Greek Istros) is the longest river of the European Union and Europes second-longest[3] (after the Volga). ... County GalaÅ£i County Status County capital Mayor Dumitru Nicolae, Social Democratic Party, since 2000 Area 241. ... Ioan Sturdza was a prince of Moldavia (1822-1828) and the most famous descendant of Alexandru Sturdza. ... This is a list of rulers of Moldavia. ... Grigore IV Ghica Grigore IV Ghica or Grigore Dimitrie Ghica was Prince of Wallachia between 1822 and 1828. ... Below is the list of Wallachian rulers, since the first mentioned until the unification with Moldavia in 1859. ... The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 was sparked by the Greeks struggle for independence. ... The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ... IonicÄƒ TÄƒutu (usual rendition of Ion TÄƒutu; 1798â€”1828) was a Moldavian low-ranking boyar, Enlightenment-inspired pamphleteer, and craftsman (an engineer by trade, according to Alecu Russo). ... Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy. ... This article gives an overview of Liberalism and Radicalism in Romania. ...

On October 7, 1826, the Ottoman Empire – anxious to prevent Russia's intervention in the Greek Independence War – negotiatied with it a new status for the region in Akkerman, one which conceded to several requests of the inhabitants: the resulting Akkerman Convention was the first official document to nullify the principle of Phanariote reigns, instituting seven-year terms for new princes elected by the respective Divans, and awarding the two countries the right to engage in unresticted international trade (as opposed to the tradition of limitations and Ottoman protectionism, it only allowed Istanbul to impose its priorities in the grain trade).^[13] The convention also made the first mention of new Statutes, enforced by both powers as governing documents, which were not drafted until after the war — although both Sturdza and Ghica had appointed commissions charged with adopting such projects.^[14] October 7 is the 280th day of the year (281st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The oldest surviving photograph, NicÃ©phore NiÃ©pce, circa 1826 1826 (MDCCCXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (Ukrainian: , translit. ... The Akkerman Convention was a treaty signed on October 7, 1826 between the Russian and the Ottoman Empires in the Budjak citadel of Akkerman (present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine). ... International trade is the exchange of goods and services across international boundaries or territories. ... Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between nations, through methods such as high tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, a variety of restrictive government regulations designed to discourage imports, and anti-dumping laws in an attempt to protect domestic industries in a particular nation from foreign take-over... GRAIN TRADE: The complexity of the conditions of life in the 20th century may be well illustrated from the grain trade of the world. ...

The Russian military presence on the Principalities' soil was inaugurated in the first days of the war: by late April 1828, the Russian army of Peter Wittgenstein had reached the Danube (in May, it entered present-day Bulgaria).^[15] The campaign, prolonged for the following year and coinciding with devastating bubonic plague and cholera epidemics (which together killed around 1.6% of the population in both countries),^[16] soon became a drain on local economy:^[17] according to British observers, the Wallachian state was required to indebt itself to European creditors for a total sum of ten million piastres, in order to provide for the Russian army's needs.^[18] Accusations of widespread plunder were made by the French author Marc Girardin, who travelled in the region during the 1830s; Girardin alleged that Russian troops had confiscated virtually all cattle for their needs, and that Russian officers had insulted the political class by publicly stating that, in case the supply in oxen was to prove insufficient, boyars were to be tied to carts in their place — an accusation backed by Ion Ghica in his recollections.^[19] He also recorded a mounting dissatifaction with the new rule, mentioning that peasants were especially upset by the continuous maneuvers of troops inside the Principalities' borders.^[20] Overall, Russophilia in the two Principalities appears to have suffered a major blow.^[21] Despite the confiscations, statistics of the time indicated that the pace of growth in heads of cattle remained steady (a 50% growth appears to have occurred between 1831 and 1837).^[22] Prince Peter Khristianovich Wittgenstein (1769-1843) was a Russian Field Marshal distinguished for his services in the Napoleonic wars. ... The Danube (ancient Danuvius, ancient Greek Istros) is the longest river of the European Union and Europes second-longest[3] (after the Volga). ... Bubonic plague is the best-known variant of the deadly infectious disease plague, which is caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis. ... Cholera is a water-borne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, which is typically ingested by drinking contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially shellfish. ... A 100 piastre note from French Indochina, circa 1954. ... Marc Girardin Saint-Marc Girardin (February 22, 1801, Paris - April 1, 1873, Morsang-sur-Seine) was a French politician and man of letters, whose real name was Marc Girardin. ... Ion Ghica (1817-1897) was a Romanian diplomat and a prime minister of Romania between 1866 and 1867 and also between 1870-1871. ... Russophilia is the love of Russia and/or Russians. ...

The Treaty of Adrianople, signed on September 14, 1829, confirmed both the Russian victory and the provisions of the Akkerman Convention, partly amended to reflect the Russian political ascendancy over the area. Furthermore, Wallachia's southern border was settled on the Danube thalweg, and the state was given control over the previously Ottoman-ruled ports of Brăila, Giurgiu, and Turnu Măgurele.^[23] The freedom of commerce (which consisted mainly of grain exports from the region) and freedom of navigation on the river and on the Black Sea were passed into law, allowing for the creation of naval fleets in both Principalities in the following years, as well as for a more direct contact with European traders, with the confirmation of the Moldavia and Wallachia's commercial privileges first stipulated at Akkerman (alongside the tight links soon established with Austrian and Sardinian traders, the first French ships visited Wallachia in 1830).^[24] The 1829 peace treaty of Adrianople (called also Treaty of Edirne), was settled between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. ... September 14 is the 257th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (258th in leap years). ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Thalweg (a German word compounded from Tal, valley, and Weg, way) is a term adopted into English usage for geography. ... County BrÄƒila County Status County capital Mayor Constantin Sever Cibu, National Liberal Party, since 2004 Population (2002) 216,929 Geographical coordinates Web site http://www. ... County Giurgiu County Status County capital Mayor Lucian Iliescu, National Liberal Party, since 2000 Population (2002) 73,586 Geographical coordinates , Web site http://www. ... County Teleorman County Status Mayor Nicolae Mohanu, since 2000 Area kmÂ² Population (2002) 30,187 Density inh/kmÂ² Geographical coordinates 43Â°46 N / 24Â°55 E Web site Turnu MÄƒgurele, is a city in Teleorman County, Romania. ... Map of the Black Sea. ... A rare occurance of a 5-country multinational fleet, during Operation Enduring Freedom in the Oman Sea. ... Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1839: Mainland Piedmont, with Savoia upper left (pink) and Nizza (Nice) lower left (brown) both now French, and Sardinia in the inset The Kingdom of Sardinia is a former kingdom in Italy. ...

Russian occupation over Moldavia and Wallachia (as well as the Bulgarian town of Silistra) was prolonged pending the payment of war reparations by the Ottomans. Emperor Nicholas I assigned Fyodor Pahlen as governor over the two countries before the actual peace, as the first in a succession of three Plenipotentiary Presidents of the Divans in Moldavia and Wallachia,^[25] and official supervisor of the two commissions charged with drafting the Statutes. The bodies, having for secretaries Gheorghe Asachi in Wallachia and Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei in Moldavia, had resumed their work while the cholera epidemic was still raging, and continued it after Pahlen had been replaced with Pyotr Zheltukhin in February 1829.^[26] Silistra (Bulgarian: , historically Bulgarian Ð”Ñ€ÑŠÑÑ‚ÑŠÑ€ (Drastar, ) and Romanian DÃ¢rstor) is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern side of the lower Danube at the countrys border with Romania. ... War reparations refer to the monetary compensation provided to a triumphant nation or coalition from a defeated nation or coalition. ... At different times, a ruler in Ruthenia/Kievan Rus/Muscovy/early Russia/Imperial Russia bore the title of Kniaz (translated as Duke or Prince), Velikiy Kniaz (translated as Grand Duke, Grand Prince or Great Prince), Tsar, Emperor. ... Nicholas I (Russian: ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ð¹ I ÐŸÐ°Ð²Ð»Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡, Nikolai I Pavlovich), July 6 (June 25, Old Style), 1796â€“March 2 (February 18, Old Style), 1855), was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. ... Count Fyodor Petrovich Pahlen (Russian: ; September 2, 1780, Mitava - January 8, 1863, Saint Petersburg) was a Russian diplomat and administrator. ... Gheorghe Asachi (portrait by Constantin D. Stahi) Gheorghe Asachi (1 March 1788-1869) was a Romanian Humanist, prose writer, poet, painter, and dramatist. ... Barbu Dimitrie Åžtirbei (1796 ? - Nice, 1869) was a hospodar of Wallachia twice, between 1848-1853 and 1854-1856, member of the Bibescu boyar family. ... Peter Zheltukhin was a Russian, born to a noble family in Kazan gubernia. ...

Adoption and character

The post-Adrianople state of affairs was perceived by many of the inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia as exceptionally abusive, given that Russia confiscated both of the Principalities' treasuries,^[27] and that Zheltukhin used his position to interfere in the proceedings of the commission, nominated his own choice of members, and silenced all opposition by having anti-Russian boyars expelled from the countries (including, notably, Iancu Văcărescu, a member of the Wallachian Divan who had questioned his methods of government).^[28] According to the radical Ghica, "General Zheltukhin [and his subordinates] defended all Russian abuse and injustice. Their system consisted in never listening to complaints, but rather rushing in with accusations, so as to inspire fear, so as the plaintiff would run away for fear of not having to endure a harsher thing than the cause of his [original] complaint".^[29] However, the same source also indicated that this behaviour was hiding a more complex situation: "Those who nevertheless knew Zheltukhin better [...] said that he was the fairest, most honest, and most kind of men, and that he gave his cruel orders with an aching heart. Many gave assurance that he had addressed to the emperor heart-breaking reports on the deplorable state in which the Principalities were to be found, in which he stated that Russia's actions in the Principalities deserved the scorn of the entire world".^[30] Image File history File links Kiseleff. ... Image File history File links Kiseleff. ... Count Pavel D. Kiselyov (portrait by Franz KrÃ¼ger, 1851). ... The term treasury was first used in classical times to describe the votive buildings erected to house gifts to the gods, such as the Siphnian Treasury in Delphi or the many buildings put up in Olympia, Greece by competing city-states, to impress each other during the Ancient Olympic Games. ... Iancu VÄƒcÄƒrescu (1786-1863) was a Romanian poet. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: The National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. ... The term Radical (latin radix meaning root) has been used since the late 18th century as a label in political science for those favoring or trying to produce thoroughgoing political reforms which can include changes to the social order to a greater or lesser extent. ...

The third and last Russian governor, Pavel Kiselyov (or Kiseleff), took office on October 19, 1829, and faced his first major task in dealing with the last outbreaks of plague and cholera, as well as the threat of famine,^[31] with which he dealt by imposing quarantines and importing grain from Odessa.^[32] His administration, lasting until April 1, 1834, was responsible for the most widespread and influential reforms of the period, and coincided with the actual enforcement of the new legislation. The of earliest Kiselyov's celebrated actions was the convening of the Wallachian Divan in November 1829, with the assurance that abuses were not to be condoned anymore.^[33] Count Pavel D. Kiselyov (portrait by Franz KrÃ¼ger, 1851). ... October 19 is the 292nd day of the year (293rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... A famine is a social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and increased mortality. ... Quarantine, a medical term (from Italian: quaranta giorni, forty days) is the act of keeping people or animals separated for a period of time before, for instance, allowing them to enter another country. ... For other uses, see Odessa (disambiguation). ... April 1 is the 91st day of the year (92nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 274 days remaining. ... 1834 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

Regulamentul Organic was adopted in its two very similar versions^[34] on July 13, 1831 (July 1, OS) in Wallachia and January 13, 1832 (January 1, OS) in Moldavia, after having minor changes applied to it in Saint Petersburg (where a second commission from the Principalities, presided by Mihail Sturdza and Alexandru Vilara, assessed it further).^[35] Its ratification by Sultan Mahmud II was not a requirement from Kiselyov's perspective, who began enforcing it as a fait accompli before this was granted.^[36] The final version of the document sanctioned the first local government abiding by the principles of separation and balance of powers. The hospodars, elected for life (and not for the seven year-term agreed in the Convention of Akkerman) by an Extraordinary Assembly which comprised representatives of merchands and guilds, stood for the executive, with the right to nominate ministers (whose offices were still referred to using the traditional titles of courtiers) and public officials;^[37] hospodars were to be voted in office by an electoral college with a confirmed majority of high-ranking boyars (in Wallachia, only 70 persons were members of the college).^[38] Each National Assembly (approximate translation of Adunarea Obştească), inaugurated in 1831-1832, was a legislature itself under the control of high-ranking boyars, comprising 35 (in Moldavia) or 42 members (in Wallachia), voted into office by no more than 3,000 electors in each state; the judiciary was, for the very first time, removed from the control of hospodars.^[39] In effect, the Regulament confirmed earlier steps leading to the eventual separation of church and state, and, although Orthodox church authorities were confirmed a privileged position and a political say, the religious institution was closely supervised by the government (with the establishment of a quasi-salary expense).^[40] July 13 is the 194th day (195th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 171 days remaining. ... Leopold I 1831 (MDCCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Old Style or O.S. is a designation indicating that a date conforms to the Julian calendar, formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar, currently in use in most countries. ... January 13 is the 13th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1832 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Mihail Sturdza (1795-1884) was a prince of Moldavia from 1834 to 1849. ... Ratification includes the process of adopting an international treaty by the legislature, a constitution, or another nationally binding document (such as an amendment to a constitution) by the agreement of multiple sub-national entities. ... The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... Sultan Mahmud II Animation showing the structure of the Tughra of Mahmud II Mahmud II (in Arabic Ù…ØÙ…ÙˆØ¯Ø§Ù„Ø«Ø§Ù†Ù‰ ) (July 20, 1785â€“July 1, 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death. ... Here are some examples of French words and phrases used by English speakers. ... The separation of powers (or trias politica, a term coined by French political Enlightenment thinker Montesquieu) is a model for the governance of democratic states. ... A balance of powers is a legal structure in which power is allocated to different entities, which have distrust relationships and checks on each other. ... Hospodar or gospodar is a term of Slavonic origin, meaning lord. The rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia (only occasionally joined) were styled hospodars in Slavic writings from the 15th century to 1866, alongside the title of voivod. ... The Akkerman Convention was a treaty signed on October 7, 1826 between the Russian and the Ottoman Empires in the Budjak citadel of Akkerman (present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine). ... The Elections and Parties Series Democracy Liberal democracy History of democracy Representative democracy Representation Voting Voting systems Elections Elections by country Elections by calender Electoral systems Politics Politics by country Political campaigns Political science Political philosophy Related topics Political parties Parties by country Parties by name Parties by ideology Representative... A guild is an association of craftspeople in a particular trade. ... This is a glossary of historical Romanian ranks and titles used in principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania, and later in Romania. ... An official is, in the primary sense, someone who holds an office in an organisation, of any kind. ... An electoral college is a set of electors who are empowered as a deliberative body to elect a candidate to a particular office. ... A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box: In law, the judiciary or judicial is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. ... Jesus vertreibt die HÃ¤ndler aus dem Tempel (Jesus and the Money Changers [in the Temple]) by Giovanni Paolo Pannini. ... The Romanian Orthodox Church (Biserica OrtodoxÄƒ RomÃ¢nÄƒ in Romanian) is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ...

A fiscal reform ensued, with the creation of a poll tax (calculated per family), the elimination of most indirect taxes, annual state budgets (approved by the Assemblies) and the introduction of a civil list in place of the hospodars' personal treasuries.^[41] New methods of bookkeeping were regulated, and the creation of national banks was projected, but, like the adoption of national fixed currencies, was never implemented.^[42] Tax reform is the process of changing the way taxes are collected or managed by the government. ... A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a tax of a uniform, fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income). ... The term indirect tax has more than one meaning. ... Budget generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and revenues. ... A civil list is a list of individuals to whom money is paid by the government. ... Bookkeeping is the recording of all financial transactions undertaken by a business (or an individual). ... The term national bank has several meanings: especially in developing countries, a bank owned by the state an ordinary private bank which operates nationally (as opposed to regionally or locally or even internationally) In the past, the term national bank has been used synonymously with central bank, but it is... A fixed currency, less commonly called a pegged currency, is a currency that uses a fixed exchange rate as its exchange rate regime. ...

According to the historian Nicolae Iorga, "The [boyar] oligarchy was appeased [by the Regulament's adoption]: a beautifully harmonious modern form had veiled the old medieval structure [...]. The bourgeoisie [...] held no influence. As for the peasant, he lacked even the right to administer his own commune, he was not even allowed to vote for an Assembly deemed, as if in jest, «national»."^[43] Nevertheless, conservative boyars remained suspicious of Russian tutelage, and several expressed their fear that the regime was a step leading to the creation of a regional guberniya for the Russian Empire.^[44] Their mistrust was, in time, reciprocated by Russia, who relied on hospodars and the direct intervention of its consuls to push further reforms.^[45] Kiselyov himself voiced a plan for the region's annexation to Russia, but the request was dismissed by his superiors.^[46] portrait of Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (a. ... Oligarchy (Greek , OligarkhÃa) is a form of government where political power effectively rests with a small, elite segment of society (whether distinguished by wealth, family or military prowess). ... // Main article: Romania in the Dark Ages The Dark Ages in what is now Romania ended around the 11th century, following the period in which the Romanian lands had been part of the First Bulgarian Empire (802-1018). ... Bourgeoisie (RP [], GA []) refers to a group of people whose social and political opinions are determined primarily by concern for property values and personal appearance of wealth. ... A commune (comunÄƒ in Romanian) is, along with the municipality, the lowest level of administrative subdivision in Romania. ... Guberniya (Russian: ) (also gubernia, guberniia, gubernya) was a major administrative subdivision of the Imperial Russia, usually translated as governorate or province. ... Annexation (Latin ad, to, and nexus, joining) is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous). ...

Economic trends

Cities and towns

Despite under-representation in politics, the middle class swelled in numbers, profiting from a growth in trade which had increased the status of merchants. Under continuous competition from the sudiţi, traditional guilds (bresle or isnafuri) faded away, leading to a more competitive, purely capitalist environment.^[47] This nevertheless signified that, although the traditional Greek competition for Romanian merchants and artisans had become less relevant, locals continued to face one from Austrian subjects of various nationalities, as well as from a sizeable immigration of Jews from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and Russia — prevented from settling in the countryside, Jews usually became keepers of inns and taverns, and later both bankers and leaseholders of estates.^[48] In this context, an anti-Catholic sentiment was growing, based, according to Keith Hitchins, on the assumption that Catholicism and Austrian influence were closely related, as well as on a widespread preference for secularism.^[49] The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ... People in Bucharest during the late 1700s The SudiÅ£i (plural of Sudit - Romanian language, from Italian suddito, meaning subject or citizen) were inhabitants of the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) who, for the latter stage of the 18th and a large part of the 19th century â€” during and after... For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... Jewish Romanian history concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins. ... Coat-of-arms of Galicia or Galicja Galicia (Ukrainian: , Polish: , German: , Hungarian: , Czech: , Turkish: ) is an historical region in East Central Europe, currently divided between Poland and Ukraine. ... Inns are establishments where travellers can procure food, drink, and lodging. ... A tavern is, loosely, a place of business where people gather to drink alcoholic beverages and, more than likely, also be served food, though not licenced to put up guests. ... A leasehold estate is an ownership interest in land in which a lessee or a tenant holds real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord. ... Secularity is the state of being without religious or spiritual qualities. ...

The Romanian middle class formed the basis for what was to become the liberal electorate, and accounted for the xenophobic discourse of the National Liberal Party during the latter's first decade of existence (between 1875 and World War I).^[50] This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or more. ... This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or more. ... Status Capital of Romania Mayor Adriean Videanu, since 2005 Area 228 kmÂ² Population (2003) 1,929,615[1] Density 9131. ... This article is part of or related to the Liberalism series Categories: Politics stubs | Liberal related stubs | Liberalism by country | Romanian political parties ... Look up xenophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Partidul NaÅ£ional Liberal (National Liberal Party) is a liberal party in Romania, and the second largest party in parliament, being edged out only by the Social Democratic Party. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz...

Urban development occurred at a very fast pace: overall, the urban population had doubled by 1850.^[51]. Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, expanded from about 70,000 in 1831 to about 120,000 in 1859; Iaşi, the capital of Moldavia, followed at around half that number.^[52] Brăila and Giurgiu, Danube ports returned to Wallachia by the Ottomans, as well as Moldavia's Galaţi, grew from the grain trade to become prosperous cities.^[53] Kiselyov, who had centered his administration on Bucharest, paid full attention to its development, improving its infrastructure and services and awarding it, together with all other cities and towns, a local administration (see History of Bucharest).^[54] Public works were carried out in the urban sphere, as well as in the massive expansion of the transport and communications system.^[55] Status Capital of Romania Mayor Adriean Videanu, since 2005 Area 228 kmÂ² Population (2003) 1,929,615[1] Density 9131. ... County IaÅŸi County Status Municipality Mayor Gheorghe Nichita, Social Democratic Party, since 2003 Area 93. ... County BrÄƒila County Status County capital Mayor Constantin Sever Cibu, National Liberal Party, since 2004 Population (2002) 216,929 Geographical coordinates Web site http://www. ... County Giurgiu County Status County capital Mayor Lucian Iliescu, National Liberal Party, since 2000 Population (2002) 73,586 Geographical coordinates , Web site http://www. ... County GalaÅ£i County Status County capital Mayor Dumitru Nicolae, Social Democratic Party, since 2000 Area 241. ... This article is about the history of Bucharest, the capital of Romania. ... Look up Public works in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Countryside

The success of the grain trade was secured by a conservative take on property, which restricted the right of peasants to exploit for their own gain those plots of land they leased on boyar estates (the Regulament allowed them to consume around 70% of the total harvest per plot leased, while boyars were allowed to use a third of their estate as they pleased, without any legal duty toward the neighbouring peasant workforce);^[56] at the same time, small properties, created after Constantine Mavrocordatos had abolished serfdom in the 1740s, proved less lucrative in the face of competition by large estates — boyars profited from the consequences, as more landowning peasants had to resort to leasing plots while still owing corvées to their lords.^[57] Confirmed by the Regulament at up to 12 days a year,^[58] the corvée was still less significant than than in other parts of Europe; however, since peasants relied on cattle for alternative food supplies and financial resources, and pastures remained the exclusive property of boyars, they had to exchange right of use for more days of work in the respective boyar's benefit (as much as to equate the corresponding corvée requirements in Central European countries, without ever being enforced by laws).^[59] Several laws of the period display a particular concern in limiting the right of peasants to evade corvées by paying their equivalent in currency, thus granting the boyars a workforce to match a steady growth in grain demands on foreign markets.^[60] Image File history File links Giurgiu1837. ... Image File history File links Giurgiu1837. ... Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow. ... County Giurgiu County Status County capital Mayor Lucian Iliescu, National Liberal Party, since 2000 Population (2002) 73,586 Geographical coordinates , Web site http://www. ... Estate: The term applies to land under ownership and as such is a generic term for a parcel of land held by an individual or family, common in early British Gentry. ... Constantine Mavrocordatos (February 27, 1711-November 23, 1769) (Greek: ÎšÏ‰Î½ÏƒÏ„Î±Î½Ï„Î¯Î½Î¿Ï‚ ÎœÎ±Ï…ÏÎ¿ÎºÎ¿ÏÎ´Î¬Ï„Î¿Ï‚, Romanian: Constantin Mavrocordat ) was Prince of Wallachia and Prince of Moldavia at several intervals. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... CorvÃ©e, or corvÃ©e labor, is a term used in feudal societies. ... Pastureland Pasture is land with lush herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulates as part of a farm or ranch. ... Central Europe The Alpine Countries and the VisegrÃ¡d Group (Political map, 2004) Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. ...

In respect to pasture access, the Regulament divided peasants into three wealth-based categories: fruntaşi ("foremost people"), who, by definition, owned 4 working animals and one or more cows (allowed to use ca.4 hectares of pasture); mijlocaşi ("middle people") — two working animals and one cow (ca.2 hectares); codaşi ("backward people") — people who owned no property, and not allowed the use of pastures.^[61] A working animal is an animal that doesnt live in the wild but is kept by humans, and often trained, to perform various tasks, regardless whether they are also used for consumption of meat and milk or for other produce such as leather etc. ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a unit of area, equal to 10 000 square metres, commonly used for measuring land area. ...

At the same time, the major demographic changes took their toll on the countryside. For the very first time, food supplies were no longer abundant in front of a population growth ensured by, among other causes, the effective measures taken against epidemics; rural-urban migration became a noticeable phenomenon, as did the relative increase in urbanization of traditional rural areas, with an explosion of settlements around established fairs.^[62] Map of countries by population Population growth showing projections for later this century Demography is the scientific study of human population dynamics. ... Human population increase from 10,000 BC â€“ 2000 AD. Population growth is change in population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population per unit time. ... Rural-urban migration is the migration of people from rural areas into cities. ... Roundabouts (or carousels) are traditional attractions, often seen at fairs. ...

These processes also ensured that industrialization was minimal (although factories had first been opened during the Phanariotes): most revenues came from a highly productive agriculture based on peasant labour, and were invested back into agricultural production.^[63] In parallel, hostility between agricultural workers and landowners mounted: after an increase in lawsuits involving leaseholders and the decrease in quality of corvée outputs, resistance, hardened by the examples of Tudor Vladimirescu and various hajduks, turned to sabotage and occasional violence.^[64] A more serious incident occurred in 1831, when around 60,000 peasants protested against projected conscription criteria; Russian troops dispatched to quell the revolt killed around 300 people.^[65] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2024x1543, 335 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Regulamentul Organic ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2024x1543, 335 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Regulamentul Organic ... Nicolae Grigorescu (15 May 1838, Pitaru, DÃ¢mboviÅ£a - 21 July 1907, CÃ¢mpina) is one of the founders of modern Romanian painting. ... A factory worker in 1940s Fort Worth, Texas. ... An image of the extravagance attributed to Phanariotes in Wallachia: Nicholas Mavrogenes riding through Bucharest in a deer-drawn carriage (late 1780s) Phanariotes, Phanariots, or Phanariote Greeks (Greek: Î¦Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¹ÏŽÏ„ÎµÏ‚, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) were members of those prominent Greek families residing in Phanar[1] (Î¦Î±Î½Î¬ÏÎ¹, modern Fener),[2] the chief Greek quarter of... It has been suggested that civil trial be merged into this article or section. ... Tudor Vladimirescu (1780, Vladimiri - 27 May 1821 Târgovişte) was a Romanian revolutionary hero and the leader of the Wallachian uprising of 1821. ... Hajduk (or haiduk, haiduc, hayduck, hayduk) is a term most commonly referring to outlaws, highwaymen or freedom fighters in the Balkans. ... Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening an enemy through subversion, obstruction, disruption, and/or destruction. ...

Political and cultural setting

The most noted cultural development under the Regulament was Romanian Romantic nationalism, in close connection with Francophilia. Institutional modernization engered a renaissance of the intelligentsia. In turn, the concept of "nation" was first expanded beyond its coverage of the boyar category,^[66] and more members of the privileged displayed a concern in solving problems facing the peasantry: although rarer among the high-ranking boyars, the interest was shared by most progressive political figures by the 1840s.^[67] This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A Francophile is term given to people with a severe mental illness: its symptoms are a craven attitude towards fighting to preserve what is claimed to be loved, a belief that the French Emprie was and is vastly superior to the British (a falsehood) and an habitual insertion of... Modernization is closely linked to classical liberalism. ... The notion of an intellectual elite as a distinguished social stratum can be traced far back in history. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ... Progressivism is a term that refers to a broad school of contemporary international social and political philosophies. ...

Nationalist themes now included a preoccupation for the Latin origin of Romanians^[68] and the common (but since discarded) reference to the entire region as Dacia (first notable in the title of Mihail Kogălniceanu's Dacia Literară, a short-lived Romantic literary magazine published in 1840). As a trans-border notion, Dacia also indicated a growth in Pan-Romanian sentiment — the latter had first been present in several boyar requests of the late 1700s, which had called for the union of the two Danubian Principalities under the protection of European powers (and, in some cases, under the rule of a foreign prince).^[69] To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of Capitulations awarded by the Ottoman Empire to its Wallachian and Moldavian vassals in the Middle Ages, claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected (see also Islam in Romania).^[70] Image File history File links Wallachian_infantery_marching,_1837. ... Image File history File links Wallachian_infantery_marching,_1837. ... The Romanians (and Vlachs) are a nation speaking Romanian, a Romance language and living in Central and Eastern Europe. ... Dacia, in ancient geography the land of the Daci, named by the ancient Greeks Getae, was a large district of Southeastern Europe, bounded on the north by the Carpathians, on the south by the Danube, on the west by the Tisa, on the east by the Tyras or Nistru, now... Mihail KogÄƒlniceanu Mihail KogÄƒlniceanu (September 6, 1817, Iasi - July 1, 1891, Paris) was a Romanian statesman, historian and publicist, he became the first Prime minister of Romania October 11, 1863, after the union of Moldavian and Wallachian principalities. ... Dacia LiterarÄƒ was the first Romanian literary journal. ... A literary magazine is a periodical devoted to literature in a broad sense. ... The Danubian Principalities was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia which emerged in the late 13th century and became the basis for the Romanian nation. ... Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire are contracts between Ottoman Empire and European powers. ... Motto: Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem Borders in 1680, see: list of territories Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326) Bursa (1326-1365) Edirne (1365-1453) Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans - 1281â€“1326 Osman I - 1918â€“1922 Mehmed VI... Look up vassal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... // Main article: Romania in the Dark Ages The Dark Ages in what is now Romania ended around the 11th century, following the period in which the Romanian lands had been part of the First Bulgarian Empire (802-1018). ... Tatars (yellow) in Northern Dobruja (1903) Islam in Romania is represented by only 0. ...

Education, still accessible only to the wealthy, was first removed from the domination of the Greek language and Hellenism upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821; the attempts of Gheorghe Lazăr (at the Saint Sava College) and Gheorghe Asachi to engender a transition towards Romanian-language teaching had been only moderately successful, but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of Ion Heliade Rădulescu's teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper, Curierul Românesc.^[71] Moldavia soon followed, after Asachi began printing his highly influential magazine Albina Românească.^[72] The Regulament brought about the creation of new schools, which were dominated by the figures of Transylvanian Romanians who had taken exile after expressing their dissatifaction with Austrian rule in their homeland — these teachers, who usually rejected the adoption of French cultural models in the otherwise conservative society (viewing the process as an unnatural one), counted among them Ioan Maiorescu and August Treboniu Laurian.^[73] Another impertus for nationalism was the Russian-supervised creation of small standing armies (occasionally referred to as "militias"; see Moldavian military forces and Wallachian military forces). The Wallachian one first maneuvered in the autumn of 1831, and was supervised by Kiselyov himself.^[74] According to Ion Ghica, the prestige of military careers had a relevant tradition: "Only the arrival of the Muscovites [sic] in 1828 ended [the] young boyars' sons flighty way of life, as it made use of them as commissioners (mehmendari) in the service of Russian generals, in order to assist in providing the troops with [supplies]. In 1831 most of them took to the sword, signing up for the national militia."^[75] Greek (, IPA: â€” Hellenic) has a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest of any single language within the Indo-European family. ... Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around one thousand years. ... Gheorghe LazÄƒr, 5 June 1779 - 17 September 1821 was a romanian scholar, the founder of the first romanian speaking school in Bucharest in 1818. ... The Saint Sava College was one of the earliest Academic institutions of Wallachia, Romania. ... Gheorghe Asachi (portrait by Constantin D. Stahi) Gheorghe Asachi (1 March 1788-1869) was a Romanian Humanist, prose writer, poet, painter, and dramatist. ... Romanian (limba romÃ¢nÄƒ IPA ) is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 26 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova. ... Ion Heliade RÄƒdulescu - (1802-1872 ) Romanian academician, writer, editor, prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, politician, teacher at the Saint Sava College in Bucharest, considered by most the foremost Romanian culture representative of the first period of the 18th century. ... Albina RomÃ¢neascÄƒ (The Romanian Bee) was a Romanian-language bi-weekly political and literary magazine, printed in IaÅŸi, Moldavia, at two intervals during the Regulamentul Organic period (between June 1, 1829 and January 3, 1835 and again between January 3, 1837 and January 2, 1850). ... Map of Romania with Transylvania in yellow Transylvania (Romanian: or Transilvania; Hungarian: ; German: ; Serbian: / Transilvanija or Ð•Ñ€Ð´ÐµÑ™ / Erdelj) is a historical region in central and western Romania. ... Conservatism is a political philosophy that usually favors traditional values and strong foreign defense. ... August Treboniu Laurian (1810-1881) was a Transylvanian Romanian intellectual. ... A standing army is an army composed of full time professional soldiers. ... Lexington Minuteman representing militia minuteman John Parker Militia is the activity of one or more citizens organized to provide defense or paramilitary service, or those engaged in such activity. ... Moldavian troops engaging the Poles in the Battle of Obertyn (1531) Moldavia had a military force for much of its history as an independent and, later, autonomous principality subject to the Ottoman Empire (14th century-1859). ... Ion Ghica (1817-1897) was a Romanian diplomat and a prime minister of Romania between 1866 and 1867 and also between 1870-1871. ...

The Westernization of Romanian society took place at a rapid pace, and created a noticeable, albeit not omnipresent, generation gap.^[76] The paramount cultural model was the French one, following a pattern already established by contacts between the region and the French Consulate and First Empire (attested, among others, by the existence of a Wallachian plan to petition Napoleon Bonaparte, whom locals believed to be a descendant of the Byzantine Emperors, with a complaint against the Phanariotes,^[77] as well as by an actual anonymous petition sent in 1807 from Moldavia).^[78] This trend was consolidated by the French cultural model partly adopted by the Russians,^[79] a growing mutual sympathy between the Principalities and France, increasingly obvious under the French July Monarchy,^[80] and, as early as the 1820s, the enrolment of young boyars in Parisian educational institutions (coupled with the 1830 opening of a French-language school in Bucharest).^[81] The young generation eventually attempted to curb French borrowings, which it had come to see as endangering its nationalist aspirations.^[82] Image File history File links Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc,_1843. ... Image File history File links Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc,_1843. ... Traditional hat toss celebration at a graduation ceremony at the United States Naval Academy A party is a social gathering intended primarily for celebration and recreation. ... Westernization (or westernisation) is a process whereby traditional, long-established societies come under the influence of Western culture in such matters as industry and technology, law, politics and economics, lifestyle and diet, language and the alphabet, religion and values. ... This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire, covers the period of the domination of France and much of continental Europe by Napoleon I of France. ... Look up Petition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A petition is a request to an authority, most commonly a government official or public entity. ... Napoleon I Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine (15 August 1769 â€“ 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from... This is a list of the Emperors of the late Eastern Roman Empire, called Byzantine by modern historians. ... The July Monarchy was established in France with the reign of Louis Philippe of France. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Paris Eiffel tower as seen from the esplanade du TrocadÃ©ro. ...

Statutary rules and nationalist opposition

In 1834, despite the founding documents' requirements, Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to appoint the first two hospodars (instead of providing for their election), as a means to ensure both the monarchs' support for a moderate pace in reforms and their allegiance in front of conservative boyar opposition.^[83] The choices were Alexandru II Ghica (the stepbrother of the previous monarch, Grigore IV) as Prince of Wallachia and Mihail Sturdza (a distant cousin of Ioniţă Sandu) as Prince of Moldavia. The two rules (generally referred to as Domnii regulamentare — "statutary" or "regulated reigns"), closely observed by the Russian consuls and various Russian technical advisors, soon met a vocal and unified opposition in the Assemblies and elsewhere.^[84] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1379x1037, 385 KB) ProclamaÅ£ia de la Islaz, textul original Ã®n caractere (semi-)chirilice. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1379x1037, 385 KB) ProclamaÅ£ia de la Islaz, textul original Ã®n caractere (semi-)chirilice. ... The 1849 Proclamation of Islaz written in Romanian Cyrillic. ... Hospodar or gospodar is a term of Slavonic origin, meaning lord. The rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia (only occasionally joined) were styled hospodars in Slavic writings from the 15th century to 1866, alongside the title of voivod. ... Alexandru II or Alexandru D. Ghica (1796 - 1862), a member of the Ghica family, was caimacam (regent) of Wallachia (4 July 1856- October 1858); between April 1834 and 7 October 1842, he was Prince of Wallachia. ... Grigore IV Ghica Grigore IV Ghica or Grigore Dimitrie Ghica was Prince of Wallachia between 1822 and 1828. ... Below is the list of Wallachian rulers, since the first mentioned until the unification with Moldavia in 1859. ... Mihail Sturdza (1795-1884) was a prince of Moldavia from 1834 to 1849. ... Ioan Sturdza was a prince of Moldavia (1822-1828) and the most famous descendant of Alexandru Sturdza. ... This is a list of rulers of Moldavia. ... For the uses of Consul as Chief Magistrate of a (city) state, see Consul. ...

Immediately after the confirmation of the Regulament, Russia had began demanding that the two local Assemblies each vote an Additional Article (Articol adiţional) — one preventing any modification of the texts without the common approval of the courts in Istanbul and Saint Petersburg.^[85] In Wallachia, the issue turned into scandal after the pressure for adoption mounted in 1834, and led to a four-year long standstill, during which a nationalist group in the legislative body began working on its own project for a constitution, proclaiming the Russian protectorate and Ottoman suzerainty to be over, and self-determination with guarantees from all European Powers of the time.^[86] The radical leader of the movement, Ion Câmpineanu, maintained close contacts with Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski's Union of National Unity (as well as with other European nationalists Romantics);^[87] after the Additional Article passed due to Ghica's interference and despite boyar protests, Câmpineanu was forced to abandon his seat and take refuge in Central Europe (until being arrested and sent back by the Austrians to be imprisoned in Bucharest).^[88] From that point on, opposition to Ghica's rule took the form of Freemason and carbonari-inspired conspiracies, formed around young politicians such as Mitică Filipescu, Nicolae Bălcescu, Eftimie Murgu, Ion Ghica, Christian Tell, Dimitrie Macedonski, and Cezar Bolliac (all of whom held Câmpineanu's ideology in esteem)^[89] — in 1840, Filipescu and most of his group (who had tried in vain to profit from the Ottoman crisis engendered by Muhammad Ali's rebellion)^[90] were placed under arrest and imprisoned in various locations.^[91] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Suzerainty refers to a situation in which a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which allows the tributary some limited domestic autonomy but controls its foreign affairs. ... Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. ... The term Radical (latin radix meaning root) has been used since the late 18th century as a label in political science for those favoring or trying to produce thoroughgoing political reforms which can include changes to the social order to a greater or lesser extent. ... Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, in English: Adam George Czartoryski (January 14, 1770 â€” July 15, 1861), Polish szlachcic, statesman and author, son of Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and Izabela Fleming (it is rumoured he was a fruit of her liaison with Russian ambassador to Poland Nikolai Repnin[1]). He was known... ZwiÄ…zek JednoÅ›ci Narodowej (English: Union/Association of National Unity) was a secret organization formed by followers of Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski. ... The Masonic Square and Compasses. ... The Carbonari (charcoal burners[1]) were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. ... In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power. ... Nicolae BÄƒlcescu Nicolae BÄƒlcescu (1819-1852) was a Romanian historian, writer, and revolutionary. ... Eftimie Murgu (28 December 1805 - 12 May 1870) was a Romanian politician who took part in the 1848 Revolutions. ... Ion Ghica (1817-1897) was a Romanian diplomat and a prime minister of Romania between 1866 and 1867 and also between 1870-1871. ... Christian Tell (1808â€”1884) was a Transylvanian-born Wallachian and Romanian politician. ... Dimitrie Macedonski (aprox. ... Cezar Bolliac or Boliac, Boliak (March 23, 1813â€”February 25, 1881) was a Wallachian and Romanian radical political figure, amateur archaeologist, journalist and Romantic poet. ... This article is about the viceroy of Egypt. ...

Noted abuses against the rule of law and the consequent threat of rebellion made the Ottoman Empire and Russia withdraw their support for Ghica in 1842,^[92] and his successor, Gheorghe Bibescu, reigned as the first and only prince to have been elected by any one of the two Assemblies. In Moldavia, the situation was less tense, as Sturdza was able to calm down and manipulate opposition to Russian rule while introducing further reforms.^[93] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (717x878, 480 KB) Arderea Regulamentului Organic ÅŸi a Arhondologiei Ã®n timpul revoluÅ£iei din 1848 StampÄƒ germanÄƒ din secolul XIX Source: Florian Georgescu et al. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (717x878, 480 KB) Arderea Regulamentului Organic ÅŸi a Arhondologiei Ã®n timpul revoluÅ£iei din 1848 StampÄƒ germanÄƒ din secolul XIX Source: Florian Georgescu et al. ... This is a glossary of historical Romanian ranks and titles used in principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania, and later in Romania. ... The rule of law is the principle that governmental authority is legitimately exercised only in accordance with written, publicly disclosed laws adopted and enforced in accordance with established procedure. ... Gheorghe Bibescu (1804-1873), was a hospodar (Prince) of Wallachia between 1843 and 1848. ...

In 1848, upon the outbreak of the European revolutions, liberalism consolidated itself into more overt opposition, helped along by contacts between Romanian students with the French movement.^[94] Nevertheless, the Moldavian revolution of late March 1848 was an abortive one, and led to the return of Russian troops on its soil.^[95] Wallachia's revolt was successful: after the Proclamation of Islaz on June 21 sketched a new legal framework and land reform with an end to all corvées (a program acclaimed by the crowds), the conspirators managed to topple Bibescu, who had by then dissolved the Assembly,^[96] without notable violence, and established a Provisoral Government in Bucharest.^[97] The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a revolutionary wave which erupted in Sicily and then, further triggered by the revolutions of 1848 in France, soon spread to the rest of Europe and as far afield as... This article is part of or related to the Liberalism series Categories: Politics stubs | Liberal related stubs | Liberalism by country | Romanian political parties ... PanthÃ©on, Paris|PanthÃ©on]] behind), Paris, June 1848. ... The 1849 Proclamation of Islaz written in Romanian Cyrillic. ... June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 193 days remaining. ... Land reform (also agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning) is an often-controversial type of government-initiated or government-backed real estate property redistribution, generally of agricultural land. ... CorvÃ©e, or corvÃ©e labor, is a term used in feudal societies. ...

The new executive, orchestrating the public burning of the Regulament in September, attempted to play Ottoman interests against Russian ones, trying to obtain backing from the Porte; the relative initial success was rendered void after Russian diplomats pressured Sultan 'Abdu'l-Mijid I to intervene in their place (and thus not risk losing yet more control over the region to a more determined Russian expedition).^[98] A Russian occupation over Wallachia soon joined the Ottoman one (begun on September 18), and both lasted until April 1851; in 1849, the two powers signed the Treaty of Balta Liman, which asserted the right of the Porte to nominate hospodars for seven-year terms.^[99] Synonym of the government of the Ottoman Empire. ... The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, ErtuÄŸrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... September 18 is the 261st day of the year (262nd in leap years). ... The Treaty of Balta Liman was written when international power was shifting to the west and away from the Ottoman Empire. ...

Crimean War

The Crimean War again brought the two countries under Russian military administration, inaugurated in 1853. The hospodars of the period, Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica in Moldavia and Prince Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei in Wallachia, were removed from their thrones, and the region was governed by the Russian general Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg. Combatants United Kingdom France Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Casualties 17,500 British 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War lasted from 1854 until 1 April 1856 and was... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1674x1023, 478 KB) Crimean War - image from atlas published in 1912. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1674x1023, 478 KB) Crimean War - image from atlas published in 1912. ... Combatants United Kingdom France Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Casualties 17,500 British 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War lasted from 1854 until 1 April 1856 and was... Map of the Black Sea. ... Combatants United Kingdom France Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Casualties 17,500 British 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War lasted from 1854 until 1 April 1856 and was... This is a list of rulers of Moldavia. ... Grigore Alexandru Ghica Grigore Alexandru Ghica (1807 â€“ 1857) was the Prince of Moldavia between October 14, 1849 and 1853 and then between October 30, 1854 and 3 June 1856. ... Below is the list of Wallachian rulers, since the first mentioned until the unification with Moldavia in 1859. ... Barbu Dimitrie Åžtirbei (1796 ? - Nice, 1869) was a hospodar of Wallachia twice, between 1848-1853 and 1854-1856, member of the Bibescu boyar family. ...

As the Balkans remained a secondary theatre of war, the two Principalities were taken over by a neutral Austrian administration in September 1854 — part of a settlement between the Porte and Russia (the Austrians remained until 1857).^[100] Grigore Ghica and Ştirbei were returned to the thrones in the same year, and completed the last series of reforms carried under the terms of the Regulament. The most far-reaching among these were the ones concerning Roma slavery. In Moldavia, Romas were liberated, without a period of transition, on December 22, 1855; the change was more gradual in Wallachia, where measures to curb trade had been taken earlier, and where the decision to ban the ownership of slaves was taken by Ştirbei on February 20, 1856.^[101] Concerned by worsening boyar-peasant relations, Ştirbei, who governed without an Assembly (and had instead appointed his own Divan), enacted measures to improve the situation in the countryside, and ultimately enforced contract-based work as the rule on estates (wherby peasants who were not indebted after five years in service could leave the land they were working on).^[102] Balkan peninsula with northwest border Isonzo-Krka-Sava The Balkans is the historic and geographic name used to describe a region of southeastern Europe. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require a spell check. ... This article is becoming very long. ... December 22 is the 356th day of the year (357th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1855 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... February 20 is the 51st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ...

This was the moment when the call for union of the two Principalities began to be voiced with confidence, and the two monarchs showed more or less approval for the designs of the unionist Partida Naţională (created by 1848 revolutionaries who had returned from exile). Image File history File links Austrian_troops,_25_August-6_September_1854,_Lanzedelli. ... Image File history File links Austrian_troops,_25_August-6_September_1854,_Lanzedelli. ... Status Capital of Romania Mayor Adriean Videanu, since 2005 Area 228 kmÂ² Population (2003) 1,929,615[1] Density 9131. ... The Partida NaÅ£ionalÄƒ (English: National Party) was a liberal Romanian political party active between 1856 and 1859. ...

The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856), which placed the countries, still as Ottoman vassals, under the protectorate of all European Powers (the United Kingdom, the French Empire, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, and, never again completely, Russia).^[103] The protector states had to decide on a compromise formula for the projected union; the Ottomans demanded and obtained, in contradiction with the Regulament, the removal of both hospodars from their thrones, pending elections for the ad hoc Divans.^[104] The outcome remained disputed until the election of Alexander John Cuza, who reigned as first Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, the basis of modern Romania. The Treaty of Paris of 1856 settled the Crimean War between Russia and Ottoman Empire and its allies France and Britain. ... March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (90th in a leap year). ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1839: Mainland Piedmont, with Savoia upper left (pink) and Nizza (Nice) lower left (brown) both now French, and Sardinia in the inset The Kingdom of Sardinia is a former kingdom in Italy. ... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ... Alexander John Cuza Alexandru Ioan Cuza (March 20, 1820, GalaÅ£i â€“ May 15, 1873, Heidelberg), more commonly known in English as Alexander John Cuza, was the domnitor (ruler) of the United Principalites of Romania between 1859 and 1866. ... Domnitor (pl. ...

Contents

Background

Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople

Adoption and character

Economic trends

Cities and towns

Countryside

Political and cultural setting

Statutary rules and nationalist opposition

Crimean War

See also

Notes

References

External links

Contents

Background GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople

Adoption and character

Economic trends

Cities and towns

Countryside

Political and cultural setting

Statutary rules and nationalist opposition

Crimean War

See also

Notes

References

External links

Background