Renewable energy commercialization involves three generations of technologies dating back more than 100 years. This diverse array of technologies includes solar photovoltaics, solar thermal power plants, solar heating and cooling systems, wind power, hydroelectricity, geothermal, biomass, and ocean energy systems.^[1] The current status of these different approaches varies considerably. "First-generation" technologies are already mature and economically competitive, "second-generation" technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time, and "third-generation" technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale.^[1][2] Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ... Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. ... Ultraviolet imaging provides a dramatic sense of the Suns radiant energy resources. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides. ... Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a solar power technology that uses solar cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert light from the sun directly into electricity. ... The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. ... Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of sunshine to heat a structure. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. ... Geothermal power is electricity generated by utilizing naturally occurring geological heat sources. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ... The phrase research and development (also R and D or R&D) has a special commercial significance apart from its conventional coupling of research and technological development. ...

While there are many non-technical barriers to the widespread use of renewables,^[3] climate change concerns^[4][5] coupled with high oil prices^[6][7] and increasing government support are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries. Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006.^[8] Leading renewable energy companies include: Acciona, Enercon, Gamesa, GE Energy, Q-Cells, Sharp Solar, SunOpta, and Vestas.^[9] Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... Crude oil prices, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation) U.S. Retail Gasoline prices, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation) Oil prices from 1861-2006 in dollars of the day (black) and 2006 dollars (orange). ... Acciona Trasmediterránea is a Spanish ferry company. ... Enercon E-112 Enercon GmbH, based in Aurich, Northern Germany, is the third-largest wind turbine manufacturer in the world and the market leader in Germany. ... Gamesa is Mexicos largest cookie company. ... info on wind turbines ... Established in 1999, Q-Cells is a leading solar cell manufacturer, in terms of production output. ... Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the worlds leading manufacturer of photovoltaic (PV) modules. ... SunOpta (NASDAQ: STKL, TSX: SOY) is a Canadian company. ... Vestas is a Danish company that designs, manufactures, and sells wind turbines. ...

The wind, Sun, and biomass are three renewable energy sources

Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (3222x2280, 872 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Renewable energy ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (3222x2280, 872 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Renewable energy ... For other uses, see Wind (disambiguation). ... Sol redirects here. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ...

Overview

Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio as they generally contribute to world energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuel resources, and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases.^[1] The International Energy Agency has defined three generations of renewable energy technologies, reaching back more than 100 years: Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Energy security, or security of supply, is a key component of energy policy in many countries. ... Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source fuels, this is, hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. ... Greenhouse gases are gaseous components of the atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse effect. ... The International Energy Agency (IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris-based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the oil crisis. ...

• First-generation technologies emerged from the industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century and include hydropower, biomass combustion, and geothermal power and heat. These technologies are quite widely used.^[1]

• Second-generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern forms of bioenergy, and solar photovoltaics. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) investments since the 1980s. Initial investment was prompted by energy security concerns linked to the oil crises of the 1970s but the enduring appeal of these renewables is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials.^[1]

• Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, concentrating solar thermal power, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major role.^[1]

First-generation technologies are well established, second-generation technologies are entering the markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long-term RD&D commitments, where the public sector has a role to play.^[1] A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... Undershot water wheels on the Orontes River in Hama, Syria Saint Anthony Falls Hydropower is the capture of the energy of moving water for some useful purpose. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ... Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of sunshine to heat a structure. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Bioenergy is renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological sources. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... Energy security, or security of supply, is a key component of energy policy in many countries. ... An Energy Crisis is any great shortfall (or price rise) in the supply of energy to an economy. ... Biomass gasification, a century old technology, is viewed today as an alternative to conventional fuel. ... A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. ... The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. ... Hot-Dry-Rock (HDR) is a type of geothermal power production that utilises the very high temperatures that can be found in rocks just a few kilometres below ground. ... The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ... Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range. ...

First-generation technologies

First-generation technologies are most competitive in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on the exploration of the remaining resource potential, particularly in developing countries, and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance.

Biomass

Biomass for heat and power is a fully mature technology which offers a ready disposal mechanism for municipal, agricultural, and industrial organic wastes. However, the industry has remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007, even though demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many developing countries. One of the problems of biomass is that material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences, although improved cook stove programmes are alleviating some of these effects. First-generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive, but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues.^[1] For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ...

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectric dam in cross section

Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower is also an extremely flexible technology from the perspective of power grid operation. Large hydropower provides one of the lowest cost options in today’s energy market and there are no harmful emissions associated with plant operation.^[1] Image File history File links Hydroelectric_dam. ... Image File history File links Hydroelectric_dam. ... Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ...

However, there are several significant environmental disadvantages of large-scale hydroelectric power systems: dislocation of people living where the reservoirs are planned, release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir, and disruption of aquatic ecosystems and birdlife.^[10] Hydroelectric power is now more difficult to site in developed nations because most major sites within these nations are either already being exploited or may be unavailable for these environmental reasons. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the growing economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are also expanding hydropower.

There is a strong consensus now that countries should adopt an integrated approach towards managing water resources, which would involve planning hydropower development in co-operation with other water-using sectors.^[1]

Geothermal power and heat

One of many power plants at The Geysers, a geothermal power field in northern California, with a total output of over 750 MW.

Geothermal power plants can operate 24 hours per day, providing base-load capacity, and the world potential capacity for geothermal power generation is estimated at 85 GW over the next 30 years. However, geothermal power is accessible only in limited areas of the world, including the United States, Central America, Indonesia, East Africa and the Philippines. The costs of geothermal energy have dropped substantially from the systems built in the 1970s.^[1] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2136 × 2848 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2136 × 2848 pixel, file size: 1. ... The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 21 power plants at The Geysers The Geysers, a geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world. ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ...

Geothermal heat generation can be competitive in many countries producing geothermal power, or in other regions where the resource is of a lower temperature. Geothermal heating is a method of heating and cooling a building. ...

Second-generation technologies

Markets for second-generation technologies have been strong and growing over the past decade, and these technologies have gone from being a passion for the dedicated few to a major economic sector in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide.^[1][4]

Solar Heating

See also: Solar hot water

Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pools, or homes and businesses.^[11] The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.^[12] In many warmer climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. Solar hot water refers to water heated by solar energy. ... Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of sunshine to heat a structure. ...

Photovoltaics

See also: Photovoltaic power stations

11 MW solar power plant near Serpa, Portugal 38°1′51″N, 7°37′22″W

Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also called solar cells, convert light into electricity. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules provided Remote Area Power Supply, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing building integrated photovoltaics and power plants for grid connected applications. There is currently a proposal to build a Solar power station in Victoria, Australia, which would be the world's largest PV power station, at 154 MW.^{[13] [14]} Other large photovoltaic power stations, which have been proposed or are under construction, include: the Girrasol solar power plant (62 MW),^[15] Waldpolenz Solar Park (40 MW),^[16] and the Nellis Solar Power Plant (15 MW).^[17] Several large photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1200 pixel, file size: 930 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Solar power plant (Serpa, Portugal) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 × 1200 pixel, file size: 930 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Solar power plant (Serpa, Portugal) I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby grant the permission to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under... A Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) is a system that provides electricity in remote locations, without requiring connection to an electricity distribution system. ... The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... A large new Solar power station for Victoria is planned. ... Building approval has been given for the Waldpolenz Solar Park, which will be the world’s biggest photovoltaic (PV) power system, at a former military air base to the east of Leipzig in Germany. ... The Nellis Solar Power Plant will be the largest solar photovoltaic system ever to be built in North America and is located at Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County, Nevada, on the northeast side of Las Vegas. ...

Large-scale power applications reflect a growing market for solar photovoltaics. In 2000, the total annual manufacturing output of all solar companies was about 300 MW. In 2005, solar industry manufacturing output rose almost fivefold to more than 1,500 MW of solar PV modules and surpassed 2,000 MW in 2006.^[18]

Wind power

See also: Wind farms

Worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA

Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs.^[19][20] At the end of 2006, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 74,223 MW, and although it is currently responsible for less than 1% of world-wide electricity consumption, it accounts for approximately 20% of electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain, and 7% in Germany.^[21][22] However, it may be difficult to site wind turbines in some areas for aesthetic or environmental reasons, and it may be difficult to integrate wind power into electricity grids in some cases.^[1] Wind turbines in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen (Germany). ... Image File history File links Wind_2006andprediction_en. ... Image File history File links Wind_2006andprediction_en. ...

The United States is an important growth area for wind power. The latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity has reached 11,600 MW which is enough to serve three million average households.^[23] Some of the largest wind farms operating in the U.S. are: Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, TX (736 MW); Maple Ridge Wind Farm, NY (322 MW); Stateline Wind Project, OR & WA (300 MW); King Mountain Wind Farm, TX (281 MW); and Sweetwater Wind Farm, TX (264 MW).^[23] The American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), which formed in 1974, is the national trade association of the U.S. wind energy industry. ... Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is the worlds largest wind farm at 735. ... Just a few of the 120 Vestas wind turbines. ... The Stateline Wind Project is a wind farm straddling the border between Oregon and Washington. ... The King Mountain Wind Farm is a 278. ... Vestas wind turbine in Lubbock, Texas Wind power in Texas consists of many wind farms with a total installed capacity of 2,749 megawatts (MW) at the end of December 2006. ...

Modern forms of Bioenergy

See also: Biofuels

Gasoline on the left, alcohol on the right at a filling station in Brazil

Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result of this and the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which for years had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in liquid fuels.^[24][25][26] Production and use of ethanol has been stimulated through: (1) low-interest loans for the construction of ethanol distilleries; (2) guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state-owned oil company at a reasonable price; (3) retail pricing of neat ethanol so it is competitive if not slightly favorable to the gasoline-ethanol blend; and (4) tax incentives provided during the 1980s to stimulate the purchase of neat ethanol vehicles. Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of São Paulo established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving sugar cane and ethanol yields.^[27] Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass _ recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 270 KB) Alcohol fuel pump in Brazil This image was originally posted to Flickr as One For You, One For Me. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 270 KB) Alcohol fuel pump in Brazil This image was originally posted to Flickr as One For You, One For Me. ... Petrol redirects here. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Information on pump, California. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ...

Information on pump, California.

Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.^[28] The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date. Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5 billion gallons of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.^[28] Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... “Ford” redirects here. ... DaimlerChrysler AG (ISIN: DE0007100000) is a German car corporation and the worlds eighth largest car manufacturer. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Pub. ...

It should also be noted that the growing ethanol and biodiesel industries are providing jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels.^[28]

Third-generation technologies

Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, solar thermal power stations, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.^[1] Third-generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and RD&D funding.^[1] Biomass gasification, a century old technology, is viewed today as an alternative to conventional fuel. ... A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. ... The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. ... Hot-Dry-Rock (HDR) is a type of geothermal power production that utilises the very high temperatures that can be found in rocks just a few kilometres below ground. ... The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ...

New bioenergy technologies

See also: Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

According to the International Energy Agency, new bioenergy (biofuel) technologies being developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol biorefineries, could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.^[29] Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions of the United States.^[30] Three phases of ethanol commercialization are emerging. ... Cellulosic ethanol is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ...

Solar thermal power stations

See also: Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert

Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector

Solar thermal power stations have been successfully operating in California commercially since the late 1980s, including the largest solar power plant of any kind, the 350 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems. Nevada Solar One is another 64MW plant which has recently opened.^[31] Other parabolic trough power plants being proposed are two 50MW plants in Spain, and a 100MW plant in Israel.^[32] Extent of Mojave Desert. ... Image File history File links Smallsketch. ... Image File history File links Smallsketch. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Nevada Solar One is the third largest solar power plant in the world, generating 64MW, as of June 2007. ...

Ocean energy

In terms of ocean energy, another third-generation technology, Portugal has the world's first commercial wave farm, the Aguçadora Wave Park, under construction in 2007. The farm will initially use three Pelamis P-750 machines generating 2.25 MW^{[33] [34]} and costs are put at 8.5 million euro. Subject to successful operation, a further 70 million euro is likely to be invested before 2009 on a further 28 machines to generate 525 MW.^[35] Funding for a wave farm in Scotland was announced in February 2007 by the Scottish Executive, at a cost of over 4 million pounds, as part of a £13 million funding packages for ocean power in Scotland. The farm will be the world's largest with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines.^[36] The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ... Pelamis machine pointing into the waves: it attenuates the waves, gathering more energy than its narrow profile suggests. ... Aguçadora Wave Park is the worlds first commercial wave farm, located near Póvoa de Varzim, in Portugal. ... The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter is an emerging technology that will use the motion of ocean waves to create electricity. ... For other uses, see Euro (disambiguation). ... 2009 (MMIX) will be a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the country. ... The Executives logo, shown with English and Scottish Gaelic caption The term Scottish Executive is used in two different, but closely-related senses: to denote the executive arm of Scotlands national legislature (i. ... GBP redirects here. ... Wind, wave and tide make up more than 80% of Scotlands renewable energy potential. ...

In 2007, the world's first commercial tidal power station is to be installed in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. The 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal electricity generator, part of Northern Ireland's Environment & Renewable Energy Fund scheme, will take advantage of the fast tidal flow (up to 4 metres per second) in the lough. Although the generator is expected to be powerful enough to power a thousand homes, the turbine will have minimal environmental impact, as it will be almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn quite slowly.^[37] Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides. ... Strangford Lough from Portaferry, looking towards the narrows. ... The SeaGen rotor in Harland and Wolff, Belfast before installation in Strangford Narrows Marine Current Turbines Ltd. ...

Enhanced geothermal systems

Enhanced geothermal systems, also known as hot dry rock geothermal, utilise new techniques to exploit resources that would have been uneconomical in the past. These systems are still in the research phase, and require additional RD&D for new and improved approaches, as well as to develop smaller modular units that will allow economies of scale at the manufacturing level. Further government-funded research and close collaboration with industry will help to make exploitation of geothermal resources more economically attractive for investors.^[1] Overview of how Hot-Dry-Rock power generation works. ...

Nanotechnology thin-film solar panels

Solar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products. Nanosolar has secured more than $100 million from investors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin-film solar panels. The company expects the factory to open in 2010 and produce enough solar cells each year to generate 430 megawatts of power.^[38] Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range. ... Nanosolar is a developer of solar power technology. ...

Renewable energy industry

Wind power companies

A Vestas wind turbine

Gamesa Wind Turbine Installed at Bald Mountain in Bear Creek Township, PA

See also: List of wind turbine manufacturers

Currently three quarters of global wind turbine sales come from only four turbine manufacturing companies: Vestas, Gamesa, Enercon, and GE Energy.^[39] Vestas, the market leader,^[9][40] has installed turbines in 60 countries. It is a Danish company which employs 14,000 people globally and, in 2003, merged with the Danish wind turbine manufacturer NEG Micon. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1536 × 2048 pixels, file size: 529 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1536 × 2048 pixels, file size: 529 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (402 × 602 pixels, file size: 126 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Gamesa Wind turbine. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 400 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (402 × 602 pixels, file size: 126 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Gamesa Wind turbine. ... Bear Creek Township is a township located in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. ... // Multibrid 5000 Prototype, north of Bremerhaven (Germany) Wakamatsu wind farm, Kitakyushu, Japan Wind turbines in Solano County, CA AAER Systems [1] (Canada) Acciona Energy [2] (Spain) AN Windenergie [3] (Germany) - bought by Siemens in 2005, now Siemens Wind Power GmbH A.Ayvazian & Associates (Iran) Bard Engineering [4](Germany) BOLTUN [5... This article is about the machine for converting the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical energy. ... Vestas is a Danish company that designs, manufactures, and sells wind turbines. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Gamesa, founded in 1976 with headquarters in Bilbao, Spain, is currently the world's second largest wind turbine manufacturer,^[9][41] after Vestas, and it is also a major builder of wind farms. Gamesa’s main markets are within Europe, the US and China. In 2006, Europe accounted for 65 percent of Gamesa’s sales, of which 40 percent were within Spain.^[39] Gamesa is Mexicos largest cookie company. ...

In 2004, German company Enercon installed a total of 1288 MW of wind power and had around 16% of the global market share. Enercon constructed production facilities in Brazil in 2006, and has extended its presence there, as well as in the more traditional markets of Germany, India, Austria, UK, Canada and the Netherlands.^[9] Enercon E-112 Enercon GmbH, based in Aurich, Northern Germany, is the third-largest wind turbine manufacturer in the world and the market leader in Germany. ...

GE Energy has installed over 5,500 wind turbines and 3,600 hydro turbines, and its installed capacity of renewable energy worldwide exceeds 160,000 MW.^[42] GE Energy bought out Enron Wind in 2002 and also has nuclear energy operations in its portfolio.^[43] info on wind turbines ...

Acciona Energy is a leader in the renewable energy sector and the company’s mission is to "demonstrate the technical and economic viability of a sustainable energy model".^[44] Acciona Energy is the largest developer, owner and operator of wind farms in the world, with 164 wind farms in nine countries representing over 4,500 MW of wind power installed or under construction.^[44] Acciona Energy is a leader in the renewable energy sector. ...

Other companies

See also: List of photovoltaics companies

Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the world's leading manufacturer of photovoltaic modules. Sharp's solar modeules are used for many applications, from satellites to lighthouses, and from industrial applications to residential use. Sharp Corporation began researching solar cells in 1959 with mass production first beginning in 1963. Sharp manufactures PV modules near Wrexham and production capacity amounted to 324 MW in 2004.^[45][46] Today, Sharp is the world’s leading manufacturer of solar PV modules, representing more than a quarter of global solar PV output, with annual revenues of more than $1 billion from that business. Commercial projects completed through Sharp’s authorised distributor, Solarcentury, have included supplying PV panels as part of a complete solar power generation system on a new petrol station in Nottinghamshire, and a large social housing project in King’s Cross, London.^[46] The company’s president, Katsuhiko Machida, predicts that the cost of generating power from photovoltaics could fall by half between 2006 and 2010.^[20] This is a List of photovoltaics companies, who manufacture and/or supply solar cells and/or photovoltaic modules. ... Sharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the worlds leading manufacturer of photovoltaic (PV) modules. ... Sharp Corporation ) (TYO: 6753 , LuxSE: SRP) is a Japanese electronics manufacturer, founded in 1912. ...

Q-Cells, the German solar cell manufacturer, went from zero manufacturing output in 2000 to being the world’s second largest manufacturer of solar cells in 2006. Q-Cells planned to manufacture about 250 MW of solar cells in 2007.^[20] Q-cells is based in Thalheim, Germany, and employs more than 1,000 people.^[47][48] Established in 1999, Q-Cells is a leading solar cell manufacturer, in terms of production output. ...

Kyocera has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. 500 MW is about three times the 2007 production output, and the company will strengthen production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through to 2010.^[49][50] Kyocera Corporation ) (TYO: 6971 , NYSE: KYO) is a Japanese company based in Kyoto, Japan. ...

Solar panel made by BP Solar

BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the world's largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide.^[51] BP solar is a major worldwide manufacturer and installer of photovoltaic solar cells.^[52] solar panel by BP solar at a german autobahn bridge. ... solar panel by BP solar at a german autobahn bridge. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... This article is about the energy corporation. ... BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the worlds largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide. ...

SunOpta is located in Canada and was founded in 1973. Its operations are divided between SunOpta Food (organics), Opta Minerals, and SunOpta BioProcess (bioethanol). SunOpta's fastest growing business segment is the BioProcess Group, which is a leading developer of technology in the cellulosic ethanol market. SunOpta's BioProcess Group specializes in the design, construction and optimization of biomass conversion equipment and facilities. They have over 30 years experience delivering biomass solutions worldwide and use innovative technologies to produce cellulosic ethanol and cellulosic butanol. Raw materials include wheat straw, corn stover, grasses, oat hulls and wood chips.^[53] SunOpta (NASDAQ: STKL, TSX: SOY) is a Canadian company. ... Cellulosic ethanol is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ...

Non-technical barriers to acceptance

There have been several recent reports which have identified a range of "non-technical barriers" to renewable energy use.^[3][54] These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy. Key barriers include:^[3][54]

• Lack of government policy support, which includes the lack of policies and regulations supporting deployment of renewable energy technologies and the presence of policies and regulations hindering renewable energy development and supporting conventional energy development. Examples include subsidies for fossil-fuels, insufficient consumer-based renewable energy incentives, government underwriting for nuclear plant accidents, and complex zoning and permitting processes for renewable energy.
• Lack of information dissemination and consumer awareness.
• Higher capital cost of renewable energy technologies compared with conventional energy technologies.
• Difficulty overcoming established energy systems, which includes difficulty introducing innovative energy systems, particularly for distributed generation such as photovoltaics, because of technological lock-in, electricity markets designed for centralized power plants, and market control by established operators. As the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change points out:

National grids are usually tailored towards the operation of centralised power plants and thus favour their performance. Technologies that do not easily fit into these networks may struggle to enter the market, even if the technology itself is commercially viable. This applies to distributed generation as most grids are not suited to receive electricity from many small sources. Large-scale renewables may also encounter problems if they are sited in areas far from existing grids.^[55]

• Inadequate financing options for renewable energy projects, including insufficient access to affordable financing for project developers, entrepreneurs and consumers.
• Imperfect capital markets, which includes failure to internalize all costs of conventional energy (e.g., effects of air pollution, risk of supply disruption) and failure to internalize all benefits of renewable energy (e.g., cleaner air, energy security).
• Inadequate workforce skills and training, which includes lack of adequate scientific, technical, and manufacturing skills required for renewable energy production; lack of reliable installation, maintenance, and inspection services; and failure of the educational system to provide adequate training in new technologies.
• Lack of adequate codes, standards, utility interconnection, and net-metering guidelines.
• Poor public perception of renewable energy system aesthetics.
• Lack of stakeholder/community participation and co-operation in energy choices and renewable energy projects.

With such a wide range of non-technical barriers, there is no "silver bullet" solution to drive the transition to renewable energy. So ideally there is a need for several different types of policy instruments to complement each other and overcome different types of barriers.^[54][56] Sir Nicholas Stern, author of the report. ...

A policy framework must be created that will level the playing field and redress the imbalance of traditional approaches associated with fossil fuels. The policy landscape must keep pace with broad trends within the energy sector, as well as reflecting specific social, economic and environmental priorities.^[57]

Public policy landscape

Public policy has a role to play in renewable energy commercialization because the free market system has some fundamental limitations. As the Stern Review points out: Sir Nicholas Stern, author of the report. ...

In a liberalised energy market, investors, operators and consumers should face the full cost of their decisions. But this is not the case in many economies or energy sectors. Many policies distort the market in favour of existing fossil fuel technologies.^[55]

Lester Brown goes further and suggests that the market "does not incorporate the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices, it does not value nature’s services adequately, and it does not respect the sustainable-yield thresholds of natural systems".^[58] It also favors the near term over the long term, thereby showing limited concern for future generations.^[58] Tax and subsidy shifting can help overcome these problems.^[59] Lester R. Brown is an environmental analyst who has written several books on global environmental issues. ...

Shifting taxes

Tax shifting involves lowering income taxes while raising levies on environmentally destructive activities, in order to create a more responsive market. It has been widely discussed and endorsed by economists. For example, a tax on coal that included the increased health care costs associated with breathing polluted air, the costs of acid rain damage, and the costs of climate disruption would encourage investment in renewable technologies. Several Western European countries are already shifting taxes in a process known there as environmental tax reform, to achieve environmental goals.^[58]

A four-year plan adopted in Germany in 1999 gradually shifted taxes from labor to energy and, by 2001, this plan had lowered fuel use by 5 percent. It had also increased growth in the renewable energy sector, creating some 45,400 jobs by 2003 in the wind industry alone, a number that is projected to rise to 103,000 by 2010. In 2001, Sweden launched a new 10-year environmental tax shift designed to convert 30 billion kroner ($3.9 billion) of taxes on income to taxes on environmentally destructive activities. Other European countries with significant tax reform efforts are France, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Asia’s two leading economies, Japan and China, are considering the adoption of carbon taxes.^[58]

Shifting subsidies

Subsidies are not inherently bad as many technologies and industries emerged through government subsidy schemes. The Stern Review explains that of 20 key innovations from the past 30 years, only one of the 14 they could source was funded entirely by the private sector and nine were totally funded by the public sector.^[60] In terms of specific examples, the Internet was the result of publicly funded links among computers in government laboratories and research institutes. And the combination of the federal tax deduction and a robust state tax deduction in California helped to create the modern wind power industry.^[59]

But just as there is a need for tax shifting, there is also a need for subsidy shifting. Lester Brown has argued that "a world facing the prospect of economically disruptive climate change can no longer justify subsidies to expand the burning of coal and oil. Shifting these subsidies to the development of climate-benign energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power is the key to stabilizing the earth’s climate."^[59]

Some countries are eliminating or reducing climate disrupting subsidies and Belgium, France, and Japan have phased out all subsidies for coal. Germany reduced its coal subsidy from $5.4 billion in 1989 to $2.8 billion in 2002, and in the process lowered its coal use by 46 percent. Germany plans to phase out this support entirely by 2010. China cut its coal subsidy from $750 million in 1993 to $240 million in 1995 and more recently has imposed a tax on high-sulfur coals.^[59]

While some leading industrial countries have been reducing subsidies to fossil fuels, most notably coal, the United States has been increasing its support for the fossil fuel and nuclear industries.^[59]

Renewable energy targets

Setting national renewable energy targets can be an important part of a renewable energy policy and these targets are usually defined as a percentage of the primary energy and/or electricity generation mix. For example, the European Union has prescribed an indicative renewable energy target of 12 per cent of the total EU energy mix and 22 per cent of electricity consumption by 2010. National targets for individual EU Member States have also been set to meet the overall target. Other developed countries with defined national or regional targets include Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, and some US States.^[61]

National targets are also an important component of renewable energy strategies in some developing countries. Developing countries with renewable energy targets include China, India, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brazil, Israel, Egypt, Mali, and South Africa. The targets set by many developing countries are quite modest when compared with those in some industrialized countries.^[61] A developing country is a country with low average income compared to the world average. ...

Renewable energy targets in most countries are indicative and nonbinding but they have assisted government actions and regulatory frameworks. The United Nations Environment Program has suggested that making renewable energy targets legally binding could be an important policy tool to achieve higher renewable energy market penetration.^[61]

Recent developments

A number of events in 2006 pushed renewable energy up the political agenda, including the US mid-term elections in November, which confirmed clean energy as a mainstream issue. Also in 2006, the Stern Review^[5] made a strong economic case for investing in low carbon technologies now, and argued that economic growth need not be incompatible with cutting energy consumption.^[62] According to a trend analysis from the United Nations Environment Programme, climate change concerns^[4] coupled with recent high oil prices^[6][7] and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the renewable energy and energy efficiency industries.^[8] Clean energies are forms of energy which do not pollute the air, the ground, or the sea. ... Klaus Töpfer, former UNEP Exec. ... Global warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation. ... Crude oil prices, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation) U.S. Retail Gasoline prices, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation) Oil prices from 1861-2006 in dollars of the day (black) and 2006 dollars (orange). ...

The UNEP report says investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006. In 2007, the upward trend is continuing, with capital investments occurring in sectors and regions previously considered too risky and too illiquid to merit the attention of the institutional investment community. The OECD still dominates, but there is now increasing activity from companies in China, India and Brazil. Chinese companies were the second largest recipient of venture capital in 2006 after the United States. In the same year, India was the largest net buyer of companies abroad, mainly in the more established European markets.^[8] Wind power: worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA Clean Energy Trends is a series of reports by Clean Edge which examine markets for solar, wind, fuel cells, biofuels, and other clean energy technologies. ...

Renewable energy (and energy efficiency) are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increased levels of private investment and the fact that much of the capital is coming from more conventional financial actors suggest that sustainable energy options are now becoming mainstream.^[63] A recent report from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy of Zurich states that the generation and storage of renewable energy will be the fastest growing sector in energy market over the next 20 years.^[64] The international law firm of Thompson & Knight LLP has launched a Climate Change and Renewable Energy Practice Group, consisting of 26 attorneys.^[65] The Ernst & Young "Country Attractiveness Indices" provide scores (out of 100) for national renewable energy markets, renewable energy infrastructures and their suitability for individual technologies.^[66] Ernst & Young is one of the largest professional services firms in the world, and one of the Big Four auditors, along with PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (Deloitte) and KPMG. Ernst & Young is a global organization consisting of many member firms. ...

Sustainable energy

Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.^[67]

Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the “twin pillars” of sustainable energy policy. Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:^[68] Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is using less energy to provide the same level of energy service. ...

Efficiency is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed.^[68]

The IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies should be viewed as complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future, instead of being developed in isolation.^[69]

See also

Energy Portal

Sustainable development Portal

Environment Portal

• List of large wind farms
• List of notable renewable energy organizations
• List of renewable energy magazines
• List of renewable energy topics by country
• List of solar thermal power stations

• Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
• Clean Energy Trends
• Deployment of solar power to energy grids
• Energy security and renewable technology
• Eugene Green Energy Standard
• Feed-in Tariff
• Feed-in tariffs in Germany
• GE Ecomagination
• Global Wind Energy Council
• International Solar Energy Society
• Financial incentives for photovoltaics
• REN21
• Renewable energy commercialization in Australia
• Renewable energy commercialization in the United States
• Renewable energy development
• Rocky Mountain Institute
• The Clean Tech Revolution
• Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation
• World Council for Renewable Energy
• World Future Council

• Category:Renewable energy by country

Image File history File links Crystal_128_energy. ... Image File history File links Sustainable_development. ... Image File history File links Portal. ... This is a List of large wind farms, which are operating or are under construction: Alinta Wind Farm, Western Australia (90 MW) (Australia) Altamont Pass Wind Farm (606 MW) (USA) Big Horn Wind Farm (200 MW) (USA) Brazos Wind Ranch (160 MW) (USA) Centennial Wind Farm (120 MW) (USA) Champion... This is a List of notable renewable energy organizations: American Council on Renewable Energy American Solar Energy Society American Wind Energy Association British Wind Energy Association Environmental and Energy Study Institute Global Wind Energy Council International Solar Energy Society National Hydropower Association National Renewable Energy Laboratory Office of Energy Efficiency... This is a List of magazines and journals about renewable energy use and/or energy efficiency: Alternative Energy Retailer[1] Distributed Energy: The Journal for Onsite Power Solutions[2] Ethanol Producer Magazine[3] Home Power[4] North American Wind Power[5] Real Power[6] Renewable Energy Access[7] Renewable Energy... This is a List of renewable energy topics by country: This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... This is a List of Solar thermal power stations which are operating or are under construction: Andasol 1 solar power station (Spain) Nevada Solar One (USA) PS10 solar power tower (Spain) Solar Energy Generating Systems (USA) Solar Tres Power Tower (Spain) Category: ... Three phases of ethanol commercialization are emerging. ... Wind power: worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA Clean Energy Trends is a series of reports by Clean Edge which examine markets for solar, wind, fuel cells, biofuels, and other clean energy technologies. ... Deployment of solar power depends largely upon local conditions and requirements. ... The environmental benefits of renewable energy technologies are widely recognised, but the contribution that they can make to energy security is less well known. ... The Eugene Green Energy Standard is an international standard to which national or international green electricity labelling schemes can be accredited to confirm that they provide genuine environmental benefits. ... A Feed-in Tariff (FiT, FiL, Feed-in Law or Solar Premium) is a procurement mechanism designed to promote the uptake off renewable energy through government legislation. ... Feed-in electricity tariffs have been introduced in Germany to encourage the use of new energy technologies such as wind power, biomass, hydropower, geothermal power and solar photovoltaics. ... Ecomagination logo. ... The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) was established in 2005 to provide a credible and representative forum for the entire wind energy sector at an international level. ... The International Solar Energy Society (ISES) is a global organization for promoting the development and utilisation of renewable energy. ... The political purpose of PV financial incentives is to grow the photovoltaics industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. ... REN21 is the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century: a global policy network that provides a forum for international leadership on renewable energy. ... Australias renewable energy industries are diverse covering numerous energy sources and scales of operation. ... Three renewable energy sources The current status of renewable energy commercialization in the United States varies considerably between different renewable energy technologies, with some being commercialized at the present time. ... // Renewable energy development covers the advancement, capacity growth, and use of renewable energy sources by humans. ... According to its web site, Rocky Mountain Institute is an entrepreneurial nonprofit organization that fosters the efficient and restorative use of natural, human and other capital to make the world more secure, just, prosperous, and life-sustaining. ... The Clean Tech Revolution: The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity, is a 2007 book by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder, who argue that commercializing clean technologies is a profitable enterprise which is moving steadily into mainstream business. ... Logo of TREC The Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC)[1] is an initiative of the Club of Rome, the Hamburg Climate Protection Foundation and the National Energy Research Center of Jordan (NERC). ... The World Council for Renewable Energy defends, develops, and promotes policies on the multinational, governmental, regional and individual levels in favour of the wise and prudent use of natural and renewable forms of energy. ... The World Future Council (WFC) is an international, non-governmental organisation, whose goal is to work for a sustainable future in the fields of environment, peace, governance, human development and human rights issues. ...

References

Lester Russell Brown (born 1934) is an environmental analyst who has written several books on global environmental issues. ... Plan B 2. ...

Bibliography