Renewable energy development covers the advancement, capacity growth, and use of renewable energy sources by humans. Modern interest in renewable energy development is linked to concerns about exhaustion of fossil fuels and environmental, social and political risks of extensive use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy. Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished at the same rate it is used. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... // The Unobservable Although the term social is a crucial category in social science and often used in public discourse, its meaning is often vague, suggesting that it is a fuzzy concept. ... Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Nuclear reaction. ...

History

What is now thought of as renewable energy has been exploited by man since his earliest beginnings. The burning of biomass for heat and light has been practiced throughout recorded history, not to mention the use of organic foods as energy for survival. Windmills and watermills have exploited natural resources for centuries, as an early power source for small-scale agricultural and industrial processes.

The modern technologies which now comprise renewables have different and varied histories. The beginning of the development of wind technology can be dated back to the late 19th Century and experiments in Denmark and elsewhere. Interest in the technology peaked in Denmark during both World Wars due to limited access to fossil fuels. From the 1950s onwards, photovoltaic (solar) cells saw investment as a result of their usefulness in space craft, with resulting improvements in the technology and knowledge of materials, along with reductions in price to levels acceptable to some consumers. The main motivation for the expansion of renewable energies came with the oil crises of 1973 and 1979-80. Concern by political leaders in a host of countries saw increases in support for research and development of new technologies (Jimmy Carter was the first US politician to focus significantly on solar energy use, in response to the 1973 crisis). Wind, wave and solar energy technologies all benefitted from this investment with an increase in the range of their application.

Elsewhere, there have been experimentations with passive solar energy, including daylighting, which continues a tradition of orienting house-building to benefit from natural resources. Alongside the industrial development of renewable energies, many societies simply continue to practice as a matter of course what has happened for hundreds of years. Daylighting is the practice of placing windows, or other transparent media, and reflective surfaces so that, during the day, natural light provides effective internal illumination. ...

Renewable energy today

Around 80% of energy requirements in western industrial societies are focused around heating or cooling buildings and powering the vehicles that ensure mobility (cars, trains, airplanes). However, most uses of renewable power focus on electricity generation. Some, such as geothermal heat pumps (also called ground-source heat pumps) focus specifically on heating and cooling. Heat pumps move heat around from one place to another. A geothermal exchange heat pump, also known as a ground source heat pump, is a heat pump that uses the Earth as either a heat source, when operating in heating mode, or a heat sink when operating in cooling mode. ... A diagram of a simple heat pumps vapor-compression refrigeration cycle: 1) condenser, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator, 4) compressor. ...

Iceland is a world leader in renewable energy due to its abundant hydro- and geothermal energy sources. Over 99% of the country's electricity is from renewable sources and most of its urban household heating is geothermal. Denmark was the initial leader in wind energy generation and remains the nation which produces the highest per capita levels of electricity production from wind. Germany began to build up its wind capacity in earnest from the mid 1990's with the application of generous subsidies and cheap loans and now has over one third of all the wind generation capacity in the world. Spain was also a latecomer to wind energy generation, but in 2002 overtook the US to become the nation with the second highest level of installed wind energy capacity. In 2004, 6% of U.S. energy comes from renewable sources. Israel notably heats much of its household hot water through solar means and is developing new technologies for the generation of renewable energy from waste (see Mechanical Biological Treatment). Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ... Geothermal power is electricity generated by utilizing naturally occurring geological heat sources. ... Wind farm in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen, Germany. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic  - President George Walker Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from... Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) is a form of waste processing. ...

These countries' successes are at least partly based on their geographical advantages, though it is worth noting that Germany does not have particularly good wind resources (much worse for example than the UK, where policies have led to much less success) and other factors have thus played an important part in its commitment to wind and other renewables.

Wind farm in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen, Germany. ... Undershot water wheels on the Orontes River in Hama, Syria Saint Anthony Falls Prior to the widespread availability of commercial electricity, hydropower was used for milling, textile manufacture, and the operation of sawmills. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol and Biodiesel Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. ... Geothermal power is electricity generated by utilizing naturally occurring geological heat sources. ...

Renewable energy support mechanisms

Currently, creating/harvesting (renewable) energy may be more expensive than combusting fossil fuels. Technology for using fossil fuels, such as mines and power plants, are already well established whereas a lot of renewable technology is new^[1]. There remains considerable discussion amongst politicians, academics and others as to the most appropriate mechanism - or combination of mechanisms - for achieving renewable energy policy goals.

Some people claim that renewable energy is not cost effective, as it often needs government incentives in order to be viable. This may be because fossil fuel prices do not include the true costs of global ecological change now and in the future^[2]; an argument of ecological economists. It should also be noted that the effort involved in extracting oil from ever deeper reservoirs is increasing and that the costs of renewable energy technology have been shown to fall with increased investment and expansion of capacity^[3]. Conceivably, the cost of renewable energy will drop below fossil fuel costs.

Much of renewable energy policy concerns the stimulation of markets and thus demand for the various technologies with the aim of improving efficiency and reducing costs. A number of policy mechanisms have been applied to this end, the mechanisms which have been applied widely are the quota (or RPS) mechanism, the fixed tariff mechanism, contract bidding mechanisms and the application of tax credits. Growing levels of experience in the application of these has enabled more critical assessments of their usefulness in addressing the multiple goals of renewable energy policy.

Quota mechanisms

A quota mechanism, sometimes known as a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS), sees a government place an obligation on either an electricity supply company or on consumers (albeit usually manifested through their supply company) to source a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources. Companies which fail to meet the obligation are required to pay a penalty price for every unit of electricity by which they fall short of their obligation. The mechanism acts to create a market for electricity, allowing competition amongst renewable generators to meet the needs of that market. The underlying theory is that competition in this market place will drive down the costs of supplying renewable electricity and thus minimize the costs to the consumer of meeting renewable energy targets.

The market allows a government to set the capacity that is required, and allows the market place to set the cost. The level at which the penalty price is set allows the government to place an upper limit on the total costs to the consumer.

The mechanism is in place in a number of U.S. states as well as the United Kingdom, Italy and Belgium amongst other European countries. In the US, quota mechanisms applied at the State level are often assisted by the intermittent application of a federally mandated production tax credit. Motto: (Out Of Many, One) (traditional) In God We Trust (1956 to date) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington D.C. Largest city New York City None at federal level (English de facto) Government Federal constitutional republic  - President George Walker Bush (R)  - Vice President Dick Cheney (R) Independence from...

Advantages

• Competition: Technologies must compete for contracts, and thus there is pressure to drive down costs within a mechanism that can pass these costs on to the consumer. Theoretically, this means that the costs to the consumer are minimized.

Disadvantages

• Increased risk: In practice, generators are vulnerable to considerable risks, including risk relating to
  • volume (there being no guarantee that they will be able to sell all of their peak electricity),
  • price (as this depends on the market for both electricity and tradeable certificates),
  • balancing cost (a function of generator intermittency) and
  • regulation (i.e. the withdrawal of political support effectively ends the market completely). The effect of this is to raise the cost of capital and thus the overall cost of generation, resulting in an increase in the cost to the consumer.

• Dynamic efficiency: The mechanism tends to support only those technologies which are close to market when it is introduced. Technologies outside the mechanism are likely to become less and less competitive, and thus never be developed. Thinking out-of-the-box is effectively penalised. One solution is to provide additional support outside the mechanism, however, this has the disadvantage of raising the overall costs of supporting renewables.

Contract bidding mechanisms

Governments place an obligation on supply companies to accept electricity from renewable energy generating technologies which have been awarded contracts by government. Generators win these contracts by taking part in a competitive bidding process organized by the government or a specified agent of the government. Historically, competition has usually taken place within technology 'bands', that is, such that competing bids are only compared between generators employing the same technology. For example, wind generator against wind generator. Essentially, this means there are usually different competitions going on at the same time for each technology. Generally, the lowest bids are awarded contracts, provided they meet any criteria set down by the government as part of the competitive process. Examples of such a mechanism in practice include the UK's Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO), Ireland's Alternative Energy Requirement (AER) and the French EOLE. The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) refers to a collection of orders requiring the electricity Distribution Network Operators in the England and Wales to purchase electricity from the nuclear power and renewable energy sectors. ...

Advantages

• Competition: The mechanism encourages competition, acting to reduce subsidy costs to consumers. Because the governments can limit the number of contracts awarded, they can also control the maximum public spending linked to the scheme.

• Stable pricing: The fixed price attached to successful contracts also mean that project developers have less worries over variations in pricing caused by fluctuations in the electricity market. However, this can also be a problem in fitting the mechanism in with a market-led electricity supply industry.

Disadvantages

• In practice, many contracts awarded under these mechanisms have failed to lead to actual development. There are a number of possible explanations for this. One possibility is that companies make bids against future cost reductions, taking advantage of the preparation period that the mechanisms usually allow before the payment period begins. If the economics of development are not sufficiently attractive towards the end of this period then the project does not go ahead.

Another possibility is that some companies actually make bids they know will never become economic and will never be developed purely to deny the opportunity for a successful bid to their competitors. The introduction of a penalty for those failing to make good on contracts might act to discourage these problems.

Tariff mechanisms

In a tariff mechanism, the government fixes a price for every unit of electricity produced from any technology which it classifies as renewable. Because fossil fuels are relatively cheap, this price is typically greater than the market price for electricity available in that territory and thus tariffs enable generators to operate economically. Different tariff levels may be set for different technologies. A government may provide the subsidy from its own funds or may compel utility companies to purchase the electricity thus produced, passing the costs on to its consumers. Network supply companies are compelled to accept all electricity from specified technologies.

Advantages

• Risk reduction for investors: Generators receive a fixed price for a fixed period, thus reducing volume and price risk to investors. Generators are also not subject to balancing risk as network companies are compelled to take all electricity. There is also reduced regulatory risk in comparison with other mechanisms in that once a plant is operational it is effectively guaranteed a price for a fixed period into the future.

• Dynamic efficiency: Different technologies develop at different rates. If a government wishes to support a new technology it can provide a tariff specific to that technology and thus encourage it to move closer to market. The balance of evidence suggests that this provides long term benefits in terms of developing more competitive technologies.

• Proven capability: Tariff mechanisms have been widely applied in Germany, Denmark and Spain. Their employment has led to significant increases in renewable electricity generating capacity, particularly of wind energy.

Disadvantages

• Expensive: The fixed price over time means that it is difficult to pass on the benefits of increased technological efficiency to consumers. Instead benefits accrue at the level of the generating plant owner, who may be able to access high rates of return. One possible solution is through degression, that is, lowering the tariff rate over time. Reductions in the tariff must be transparent to ensure investor uncertainty is minimized. There is no guarantee that reductions will match the actual improvements in the technology.

• Unpredictable: Whilst tariff mechanisms fix the price available to renewable energy generators, the level of capacity is subject to the market, that is, there is no way of predicting how many investors will be attracted to generation by the price available. This means it is not possible to predict the overall costs of the mechanism in either the short or long term. This can be unattractive to government and consumers/taxpayers.

• Network Balancing: Distribution network operators are compelled to accept all electricity from renewable generators, regardless of the demand for electricity at the time of generation. This can lead to network balancing issues, and these tend to increase with the level of intermittent generation on the network. This leads to increasing potential for technological problems and for increased costs to the network operator.

• Market Prioritization: Compelling network operators to accept all renewable generation means that electricity from renewables is always the first to be bought. This effectively interferes with any open market for general electricity generation, and impacts on the ability of 'traditional' generators to compete in the electricity sector. This can be problematic where Governments are committed to maximizing competition in markets.

Production tax credits

Production tax credits support the introduction of renewables by allowing companies which invest in renewables to write off this investment against other investments they make. A PTC can be used as the central mechanism for the support of renewables as part of a national or regional mechanism, or it can be used in support of another mechanisms, such as a quota mechanism. Production tax credits have been supplied at the federal level in the US; they have tended to be most effective in States which also provide some other form of support, most notably a quota mechanism.

Advantages

• Stability: Have proven to stimulate capacity alongside quota mechanisms. They may provide a useful way to bring stability to generators when used in this way, reducing uncertainty and thus capital costs.

Disadvantages

• In practice, tax credits tend to be vulnerable to political conflict regarding their maintenance in the long term.

• Tax credits also tend to restrict investment in renewables to large companies with significant portfolios against which they can write off the tax credits they earn.

Statutory definitions of renewable energy

Statutory definition of renewable energy may differ from a scientific definition, reflecting the legisltors' other concerns, such as envirnomental damage and political sustainability. Contentious cases are, but not limited to: impure biomass or waste materials (such as painted wood), large hydroelectic power plants, and nuclear power. Regarding nuclear energy there is an ongoing public discussion, whether it can be included in any definition of renewable energy (see: Renewable energy). The Statute of Grand Duchy of Lithuania A statute is a formal, written law of a country or state, written and enacted by its legislative authority, perhaps to then be ratified by the highest executive in the government, and finally published. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished at the same rate it is used. ...

Renewable energy definition used by IEA

Though International Energy Agency is not a legislative body, the defintion used by this specialised organisation of OECD is representative and influential (... denotes ellipsis from original text)^[4]: IEA can stand for several different things, such as those listed here: Idaho Education Association Illinois Education Association Illuminating Engineering Society Industrial Environmental Association Information Exchange Agreements Information Exchange Annex Institute for Economic Analysis Institute of Economic Affairs Instituto de Economia Agrícola Instituto de Estadística de Andalucía... It has been suggested that Elliptical construction be merged into this article or section. ...

"Renewables include the following categories:

Combustible Renewables and Waste* (CRW):

Solid Biomass: Wood, Wood Waste, Other Solid Waste: Covers purpose-grown energy crops (poplar, willow etc.), a multitude of woody materials generated by an industrial process (wood/paper industry in particular) or provided directly by forestry and agriculture (firewood, wood chips, bark, sawdust, shavings, chips, black liquor etc.) as well as wastes such as straw, rice husks, nut shells, poultry litter, crushed grape dregs etc.

Charcoal: Covers the solid residue of the destructive distillation and pyrolysis of wood and other vegetal material.

Biogas:: Gases composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass and combusted to produce heat and/or power.

Liquid Biofuels: Bio-based liquid fuel from biomass transformation, ...

Municipal Waste (renewables): Municipal waste energy comprises wastes produced by the residential, commercial and public services sectors and incinerated in specific installations to produce heat and/or power. The renewable energy portion is defined by the energy value of combusted biodegradable material. :Footnote for this item: Some of the waste (the non-biodegradable part of the waste) is not considered renewables as such. However, proper breakdown between renewables and nonrenewables is not always available.

Hydro Power: Potential and kinetic energy of water converted into electricity in hydroelectric plants. It includes large as well as small hydro, regardless of the size of the plants.
Geothermal Energy: Energy available as heat emitted from within the earth’s crust, usually in the form of hot water or steam. ...
Solar Energy: Solar radiation exploited for hot water production and electricity generation. Does not account for passive solar energy for the direct heating, cooling and lighting of dwellings or other.
Wind Energy: Kinetic energy of wind exploited for electricity generation in wind turbines.
Tide/Wave/Ocean Energy: Mechanical energy derived from tidal movement, wave motion or ocean current and exploited for electricity generation."

Renewable energy definition in the EU Directive 2001/77/EC

Definition of renewable energy sources used by EU legislators coincides with the IEA definition, above. Bio-waste is limited to biodegradable fraction. Article 2. of the EU Directive 2001/77/EC^[5] provides the following definition of renewable energy sources: The legislative acts of the European Union (EU) can have different forms: regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions. ...

(2)(a) ‘renewable energy sources’ shall mean renewable non-fossil energy sources (wind, solar, geothermal, wave, tidal, hydropower, biomass, landfill gas, sewage treatment plant gas and biogases);

further specifying biomass:

(2)(b) ‘biomass’ shall mean the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residues from agriculture (including vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste;

Questionable renewable energy definition by Queensland Government (Australia) 2006

The definition of renewable energy, as defined by the Queensland Government in its electricity supply contract tenders, contradicts generally accepted Australian renewable energy scheme protocols. This has raised the issue about a global agreement and accreditation scheme to ensure there is no misleading conduct surrounding the purchase of renewable energy and its environmental benefits. The Total Environment Centre (TEC) in November 2006 raised concerns that the Queensland Government’s tender for green electricity, worth millions of dollars, could be selling out the environment. “TEC is concerned that unless the Government buys from approved sources and requires suppliers to surrender their mandatory Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), the purchase will do little to boost renewable energy and reduce greenhouse emissions,” said Jeff Angel, Executive Director. “Trying to do greenhouse on the cheap is no substitute for action. Unless the Government buys the whole output of renewable generators and prevents Renewable Energy Certificates from being double counted, it can be rightly accused of ‘greenwash’.” TEC has sighted a tender document for the supply of electricity to the Department of Main Roads Spring Hill Complex that clarifies the Queensland Government’s approach to the purchase of renewable energy. TEC is concerned that the purchases may not contribute to any new renewable generation being established in Queensland or elsewhere. The more such generation is established the cheaper it gets and this will benefit consumers and the environment. “The approach appears to be a change in policy, hidden in Addendum 3 of the tender document. Why is the Queensland Government changing its policy? If it’s about cost-cutting by the new department charged with purchasing renewable energy, the Department of Public Works, then it’s cost-cutting at the expense of our climate.” “The Queensland Government should be up front with the public. If it wants to make a difference to current greenhouse gas emissions through its purchasing power, then it should make sure that when it buys green electricity it is new generation and is not double counted. Otherwise it is selling the environment and renewable energy short.” “This is no drop in the ocean. Over $3 million is up for grabs and it could really help the renewable energy industry – or be wasted with phoney procurement for public relations.” The tender document states that the “…request for renewable energy for Main Roads is identical to the type of renewable energy being sourced in the Queensland Government’s whole-of-Government contract” and that the renewable energy “…does not need to be supported by RECs, this element can be retained/traded by the retailer.” This means is that when the REC is re-sold, the environmental benefits will travel with the REC and the Government’s purchase loses its environmental benefit. Environment groups recently released an audit of GreenPower products and assessed which products genuinely made a contribution to reducing our spiralling greenhouse emissions. ==See also==

• Action on climate change
• Carbon sequestration
• Effects of global warming
• Eesi - Energy & Environmental Security Initiative
• Future energy development
• Mitigation of global warming
• Nuclear power phase-out
• Oil phase-out in Sweden
• Renewable energy
• Renewable heat
• Sustainable energy
• Wind farm
• Wind power
• Wind turbine

The issue of human-caused, or anthropogenic, climate change (global warming) is becoming a central focus of the Green movement. ... Carbon sequestration from a fossil-fuel power station A carbon dioxide sink or CO2 sink is a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size, and is the opposite of a carbon source. The main sinks are the oceans and growing vegetation. ... Conceptual assessment of the risks and impacts of global warming according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and how those risks increase relative to increasing global temperatures. ... Established in 2003, the Energy and Environmental Security Initiative (EESI) is an interdisciplinary think tank located at the University of Colorado School of Law. ... Future energy development faces great challenges due to an increasing world population, demands for higher standards of living, demands for less pollution and a much-discussed end to fossil fuels. ... Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions aimed at reducing the extent or likelihood of global warming. ... A nuclear power plant at Grafenrheinfeld, Germany. ... Crude oil prices, 2004-2006 (not adjusted for inflation) In 2005 the Swedish government announced their intention to become the first country to break their countrys dependence on oil and other ‘fossil raw materials’ by 2020 [1]. As of 2005, oil supplies provided about 32% of the countrys... Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished at the same rate it is used. ... // Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy, namely the generation of heat from renewable sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Wind turbines in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen (Germany). ... Wind farm in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen, Germany. ... Wind turbine in Luxembourg Horizontal axis wind turbine, the Enercon model E-66 wind energy converter, in Germany. ...

Sources

External links

• National Wind Watch — US grassroots coalition for presenting all of the facts about industrial-scale wind energy
• Ressourceo : compare ecology
• Genome News Network (GNN) Energy News Collection of articles about how advances in genomics is leading to advances in energy production.
• Research news on Renewable Energy Development from ScienceDaily
• Renewable Energy
• Centre for alternative energy(European)
• Carbon Activism for Beginners
• Renewable Energy Media Analysis — US Election 2004 Web Monitor
• Renewable Energy News
• CleanEnergyTalk - Online community dedicated to education about clean, renewable, & alternative energy sources.
• U.S. Energy Information Administration provides a wide range of statistics and information on the industry.

References

• Boyle, G. (ed.), Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future. Open University, UK, 1996.

1. ^ Renewable Energy. Bent Sorensen. Elsevier, 2004
2. ^ Culture of Ecology: reconciling economics and environment. Robert E Babe. University of Toronto Press, 2006.
3. ^ The Economics of Solar Power for California: A White Paper. Akeena Solar Inc, 2005
4. ^ RENEWABLES IN GLOBAL ENERGY SUPPLY An IEA Fact Sheet, IEA-OECD Paris 2006 [1]
5. ^ DIRECTIVE 2001/77/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 27 September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market [2]