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Repressed memory is one of the most controversial subjects in the history of psychology and psychiatry. A repressed memory, according to some theories of psychology, is a memory (often traumatic) of an event or environment which is stored by the unconscious mind but outside the awareness of the conscious mind. Some theorize that these memories may be recovered (that is, integrated into consciousness) years or decades after the event, often via therapy or in dreams. The theory of repressed memories must not be confused with the established psychological concept of repression in general which stresses impulses instead of memories. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Shortcut: WP:NPOVD Articles that have been linked to this page are the subject of an NPOV dispute (NPOV stands for Neutral Point Of View; see below). ... Psychological science redirects here. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... Psychological trauma is a type of damage to the psyche that occurs as a result of a traumatic event. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ... Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. ... Dreaming is the subjective experience of imaginary images, sounds/voices, thoughts or sensations during sleep, usually involuntarily. ... Psychological repression, or simply repression, is the psychological act of excluding desires and impulses (wishes, fantasies or feelings) from ones consciousness and attempting to hold or subdue them in the subconscious. ...

Debate over the existence of repressed memories

Repressed memories may or may not exist. Although amnesia of traumatic events are possible, so too are false memories or pseudo-memories; however, the hypothesis of repressed memories involves far more, as it theorizes not only that memories can become completely unavailable to the conscious mind (amnesia) but that those same memories could later be retrieved, and at the time of retrieval have the same (or greater) reliability as memories which were never unavailable to the conscious mind. Many theories of Amnesia, such as Dissociative Amnesia, involve recall. Amnesia is a condition in which memory is disturbed. ...

The repressed memory concept was popularized during the 1980s and partly the 1990s by the popular press, some feminist groups, and some psychological schools of thought; however it is suffering a retreat in popularity with professionals and the public during recent years after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.^[1] The concept was originated by Sigmund Freud in his 1896 essay Zur Ätiologie der Hysterie ("On the etiology of hysteria"), however Freud himself abandoned his theory between 1897-1905, and during 1920-1923 replaced it with his impulse-based concept of Id, Super-ego, and Ego. Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to suggest an active, conscious thought management method in the second essay of his On the Genealogy of Morals as a necessary fundament of efficiency, responsibility, and maturity. Sigmund Freud (IPA: ), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939), was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. ... This article or section may be confusing or unclear for some readers, and should be edited to rectify this. ... In his theory of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud sought to explain how the unconscious mind operates by proposing that it has a particular structure. ... This article or section may be confusing or unclear for some readers, and should be edited to rectify this. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a nineteenth-century German philosopher. ... On the Genealogy of Morals (German: Zur Genealogie der Moral), subtitled A Polemic (Eine Streitschrift), is a work by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed and first published in 1887. ...

However it remains true that one must distinguish general psychological repression, amnesia, false memories or pseudo-memories, and the hypothesis of repressed memories. They all are different concepts, each building upon different theoretical conceptions.

There currently exists a great controversy among researchers, treating professionals, law professionals, and the general public as to whether repressed memories actually exist, and even more heated controversy over whether recovered memories are valid or reliable, especially in the absence of corroboratory evidence. This is particularly important as many controversial criminal cases have been based on a witness' testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some instance, the presumed existence of repressed memories are used to extend the Statute of limitations of child abuse case. Abuses of the Repressed Memory Theory and of controversial therapies like Recovered Memory Therapy often cause false memories to be formed.^[2] The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a psychotherapy that was developed in the 1980s as a way to recover “lost” childhood memories of abuse, as well as other memories of neglect and abuse. ... A false memory is a memory of an event that did not happen or is a distortion of an event, as determined by externally corroborated facts of the event. ...

The Recovered Memory Therapy industry involved thousands of psychotherapists using hypnosis, group therapy and other means to help patients recover alleged "repressed memories". This industry was dismantled over a five year period by hundreds of malpractice lawsuits beginning with the Hamanne v. Humenansky trial of August of 1995. ^[3]

Subsequent cases produced similar results culminating in the Burgus v. Braun case which, at $10.6 million, remains the world record for a psychotherapy malpractice settlement.^[4]

Research supporting repressed memories

The theory of dissociative amnesia makes the assumption that memory repression is possible. Conservative estimates show that at least ten percent of all people sexually abused in childhood will experience periods of total amnesia for the abuse they suffered. This will be followed by delayed recall experiences ^[5] Peer reviewed and clinical studies continue to document the existence of recovered memory. ^[6][7] There are over one hundred corroborated cases of recovered memory in legal, clinical and scientific case studies. ^[8]

The Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence ^[9] also report that a comprehensive review of the scientific literature on dissociative amnesia has been conducted by Brown, Scheflin and Hammond in their book, "Memory, Trauma Treatment, and the Law" (New York: Norton, 1998). Brown, Scheflin and Hammond reviewed 43 studies relevant to the subject of traumatic memory and found that every study that examined the question of dissociative amnesia in traumatized populations demonstrated that a substantial minority partially or completely forgot the traumatic event experienced, and later recovered memories of the event. They concluded that dissociative amnesia can occur after any type of traumatic event. ^[10]

Alan Scheflin, in a Psychiatric Times article states that science is limited on the issue of repressed memory. He concluded on the basis of three relevant studies that repressed memories are "no more and no less accurate than continuous memories." and recommended that therapists and courts should consider these repressed memories the same as they consider regular memories. ^[11]

Hypotheses regarding repressed memory

The avoidance of conscious acknowledgement of traumatic experiences has variously been labelled dissociative amnesia, repression, dissociative state, traumatic amnesia, psychogenic shock, and motivated forgetting ^[12].

One speculative theory on how repressed memories originate is that traumatic memories are stored scattered about in the amygdala and hippocampus but not integrated into the neocortex. Also, it could be possible the right brain stores the memory but does not communicate it to the verbal left brain. This may mean that there is a continual active effort by the unconscious to repress memories, which can be dropped at a moment's notice should the unconscious decide that the recovery of such information is necessary or vital.^{[citation needed]} For example, one possibility might be the anterior cingulate actively inhibits the memory from reaching consciousness. Look up Amygdala in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Hippocampus (disambiguation). ... The neocortex (Latin for new bark or new rind) is a part of the brain of mammals. ... Human brain viewed from above, showing cerebral hemispheres. ... Broadly conceived, linguistics is the study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ... Human brain viewed from above, showing cerebral hemispheres. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex and includes Brodmanns area 24 (ventral ACC) and 32 (dorsal ACC). ...

Another hypothesis is that the cortisol, a chemical released during trauma, may induce forgetting.^[13][14] Cortisol appears to have the ability to erase details and possibly induce amnesia. One anecdotal study done by ABC News showed military personnel who were put through an extremely traumatic situation were unable to properly identify details of the memories, even remembering the perpetrator as someone of a different sex or with a different skin color.^{[citation needed]}

Research and theories critical of the theory of repressed memories

Many opposing studies exist. A review of these hypotheses has been published by Professors Harrison Pope and James Hudson of Harvard Medical School.^[15] Other opposing views are cited in Charles Whitfield's book Memory and Abuse.^[16] Some studies of more than 10,000 trauma victims found none of them had repressed or recovered memories of trauma^[17].

Similarly, some studies of thousands of abused children found no evidence at all for so-called repressed or recovered memories. Coupled with laboratory studies and other naturalistic investigations, most prominent researchers in the field agree with Harvard University's Richard McNally and consider the notion of repressed memory to be a "pernicious bit of psychiatric folklore" ^[18]. A recent Amicus Brief to the California Supreme Court drafted by R. Christopher Barden and signed by nearly 100 international experts in the field of human memory emphasized there is no credible scientific support for the notions of repressed and recovered memories. ^[19] R. Christopher Barden Ph. ...

In addition, recent research demonstrating the relative ease of deliberately implanting false memories has been cited as evidence for this hypothesis. Hundreds of people who went through therapy and were convinced that they had been abused by their family members have recanted and no longer believe they were abused.^[20] However, there have been other studies that show a small percentage of childhood trauma that was verified by medical records was forgotten for some significant period and remembered or verified later in life^[21]. Brown, Scheflin and Hammond in their book argue that "Occasional suggestions about abuse are not generally effective." They assert that the idea that suggesting false memories in therapy can create false memories has not been tested. ^[22]

Repressed memories also may be mistaken for a normal form of amnesia of early childhood experienced by all humans. Memories before age 2 are almost always false or at least inaccurate, and few adults remember anything before age 3. {{fact} In psychology, childhood amnesia refers to the inability of people to remember their earliest childhood experiences. ...

Even when patients who have had therapy to recover 'memories' come to decide that their memories are in fact false (and so retract their claims), they can still suffer a kind of post traumatic stress. This is due to what some therapists call "brain stain". ^[23] Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), is a term for the psychological consequences of exposure to or confrontation with stressful experiences, which involve actual or threatened death, serious physical injury or a threat to physical integrity and which the person found highly traumatic. ...

Recovered memory therapy

Main article: Recovered memory therapy

The recovered memory therapy (RMT) movement peaked in the mid-1990s with tens of thousands of patients annually reporting new so-called recovered memories. The first multi-million dollar verdict against a recovered memory therapist was the 1995 case of Hamanne v. Humenansky case in the U.S.^[24] The final crushing blow to the RMT movement came in 1997 with a $10.6 million legal award to the Burgus family.^[25] "The next thing I think there will be is legislation to require informed consent from psychiatric patients for such so-called 'treatments'," said Dr. R. Christopher Barden, a psychologist and lawyer [for the plaintiff], "This (case) is the death knell for recovered memory therapy." Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a psychotherapy that was developed in the 1980s as a way to recover “lost” childhood memories of abuse, as well as other memories of neglect and abuse. ...

The leading journal in the field, Dissociation, ceased publication. By 2000, the "memory wars" were largely over. The definitive work on the subject to date is "Remembering Trauma" by Prof. Richard McNally, Harvard University Press (2003). Prof. McNally summaries the relevant scientific research and concludes that the notion of repressed memory is nothing more than psychiatric "folklore".

In the late 1990s, one feminist writer criticised the activities of organisations such as the False Memory Syndrome Foundation, suggesting it had led to many therapists becoming "...wary of treating clients who appear to have recovered memories of abuse after a long period of forgetting..."^[26]. But it should be noted that by late 2007, in a paper by Dr. Brent Waters, he states that most peak psychological and psychiatric professional bodies in the English-speaking world had issued guidelines to their members outlining the lack of scientific evidence for the concept of repressed memory. He also states that such guidelines were usually coupled with a caution against the use of "forceful, leading or otherwise persuasive interviewing techniques intended to reveal evidence of past sexual abuse"^[27]. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation was formed by a group of parents who had been accused of child abuse, their lawyers, and sympathetic academics who promote the hypothesis of False Memory Syndrome and dispute the validity of recovered memories. ...

Body memory

A form of repressed memory is supposed to be Body memory. Body memory is a claim that the body itself (rather than the brain) remembers something - typically abuse. This is characterised by a pain in a body part where there appears to be no present day physical reason for the pain, so this is seen as evidence of the body remembering a past pain, similar to phantom limb syndrome.^{[citation needed]} Body memory is the belief that the body itself is capable of storing memories, as opposed to only the brain. ... This article is about the syndrome. ...

Some psychologists and social workers use the term body memory to refer to physical symptoms that accompany trauma. Studies have shown that survivors of trauma, specifically with PTSD, have a predisposition to illness and injuries. Stress headaches would also be an example of a "body memory" when you use this definition. However, these symptoms are not only trauma induced and do not prove or disprove memories or trauma.^{[citation needed]}

There currently is no scientific evidence of body memory corresponding with either of these two definitions.

Freud on repressed memory

Parts of this article may be confusing or unclear. Please help clarify the article. Suggestions may be on the talk page. (September 2007)

Freud abandoned his theory of repressed memory not "during his later years in life" and not due to social pressure, as some feminist schools of thought^{[citation needed]} claim today. Some sources do not even mention Freud's decision of abandonment at all (for example Bass and Davis 1988,^[28] Herman 1992^[29]). Freud encountered facts in his psychoanalytical practice that contradicted his initial theory of repressed memories of traumatic sexual experiences during early childhood (mostly referred to as Freud's Seduction theory).^[30] These were Image File history File links Broom_icon. ...

• a.) that he increasingly came upon evidences in individual cases logically outruling any possibility the 'recovered' events could have occurred,

• b.) that, to a degree, he found himself able to direct his more suggestible patients into any recollection of memory he wanted to (especially while they were undergoing hypnosis), even more so in an entirely boundless manner when he turned to sexual matters, and

• c.) linked aspects (to repressed memories timewise, spatially, and/or causally) that in contrary had not been repressed or that had always been manifest to the conscious mind of his patients in a transformed appearance (see defence mechanism) were not perceived by his patients as alarming or frightening on themselves. If negative trauma was the cause for the repression Freud observed, they should hence be perceived as negative. In fact these linked aspects frequently were connoted with positive emotions, partly even very intensely so, that the patients themselves could not explain.^{[citation needed]}

Freud deduced from a.) and b.) that the unconscious mind actually knows no distinction between memories and imagination and therefore easily becomes subject to manipulation of memories and imagination, and by combining this analysis with c.), he concluded that it is personal desires and fantasies that are getting repressed instead as demanded according to social taboo.^{[citation needed]} In psychoanalytic theory, defence mechanisms are unconscious resources used by the ego to reduce conflict between the id and superego and thereby anxiety. ...

This theory of repressed impulse in fact was the fundament of Freud's psychology, and it was essentially much more provocative and controversial than his initial theory of repressed memory had been already. First advancements after abandoning his initial theory of repressed memory can be seen in his Oedipus complex concept developed 1897-1905 (by his 1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, it had completely replaced his initial theory), however it would take until the years 1920-1923 that Freud would introduce Id, Super-ego, and Ego. The Oedipus complex in Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a stage of psychosexual development in childhood where children of both sexes regard their father as an adversary and competitor for the exclusive love of their mother. ... Category: ...

Famous trials involving repressed/recovered memories

Famous cases involving repressed memories come in two forms. The first was a wave of criminal prosecutions based upon recovered memories of abuse.

• George Franklin Sr., charge: murder, accuser: Eileen, daughter crime: 1969, convicted 1995 time in jail: 6 years, duration of memory suppression: 20 years
• accuser: Nicole Taus, charge: abuse, duration of suppression: 11 years
• In some of the cases of Catholic priests accused of fondling or sexually assaulting juvenile-turned-adult parishioners ^[31][32]; also in the case of Joseph Cardinal Bernardin.

The second was a wave of malpractice litigation cases that ended the reign of terror and collapsed the recovered memory therapy movement. Few if any recovered memory cases have been seen since many of the proponents of this controversial therapy suffered lawsuits and license revocations. Examples include the highly visible cases of Vynette Hamanne, Elizabeth Carlson and Patty Burgus, all of whom received multimillion dollar jury verdicts or settlements. Another example is the case of Tom Rutherford, who sued a Missouri church therapist and won a $1 million settlement for claims that he molested his four-year-old daughter and then forced her to have an abortion (he had, in fact, had a vasectomy year before and medical examination showed his daughter was still a virgin at age 23). State licensing boards also acted to end the recovered memory therapy movement, revoking or restricting the licenses of many prominent recovery memory proponents. Cardinal Bernardins Final Resting Place His Eminence, Joseph Louis Cardinal Bernardin (originally Bernardini), (April 2, 1928–November 14, 1996) was an American clergyman, the twelfth bishop (seventh archbishop) of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago, serving from 1982 to 1996 (succeeded John Cardinal Cody). ...

See, Belluck, P. Memory Therapy Leads to a Lawsuit and Big Settlement [$10.6 Million], The New York Times, Page 1, Column 1, Nov. 6, 1997.; See also, Guthrey, M. and Kaplan, T., 2nd Patient Wins Against Psychiatrist: Accusation of planting memories brings multi-million dollar verdict. St. Paul Pioneer Press, Jan. 25, 1996, 4B.

The fact that the concept of repressed memory appears in the DSM-IV shows that this concept is 'relevant in the specific scientific community', according to a 1993 legal precedent often simply referred to as Daubert. This meant that during the 1990s, in some jurisdictions, this satisfied court rules regarding the admissibility of scientific testimony as court evidence. It should be noted however that since that time, the law has subsequently evolved, and has to some extent been shaped, by the controversy over recovered memories. The way it has responded varies according to the legal system of the state or country concerned. So in recent years, sometimes recovered memories may or may not be presented as evidence, depending on the court. ^[33]. In some jurisdictions, specific guidelines have been put in place. For example, a New Hampshire state law, known as the Hungerford Law, places strict limitations on the way repressed and recovered memories are admitted in court; in some cases preventing it altogether^[34]. The Daubert Standard is a legal precedent set in 1993 by the Supreme Court of the United States regarding the admissibility of expert witnesses testimony during legal proceedings. ...

The Christian 'inner healing' movement

There has recently been a resurgence of interest in the idea of repressed/recovered memories among members of the Christian Inner Healing Movement. Critic Jan Fletcher describes one prominent example - Theophostic Prayer Ministry - as 'a form of Recovered Memory Therapy' [3]. // General Usually referred to as a counseling movement within the Christian church which involves various counseling methods that are basically used for the calling up of suppressed or hurtful memories in order to deal with them. ... General Usually referred to as a counseling movement within the Christian church which involves various counseling methods that are basically used for the calling up of suppressed or hurtful memories in order to deal with them. ...

Repressed memories in popular entertainment

Repressed memories were a frequent topic among talk-show hosts in the 1990s .

Repressed memories have frequently been portrayed in popular entertainment, especially as a plot device. A plot device is an element introduced into a story to solely to advance or resolve the plot of the story. ...

• The film Tommy: the title character is coerced into forgetting that he has witnessed the killing of his father.
• The film Nurse Betty: Betty also witnesses a murder and as a result of the trauma forgets her entire reality for a time, deluded into being a character in her favourite soap opera.
• The film The Butterfly Effect: Evan has blackouts throughout his childhood when in traumatic situations. As a college student, he attempts to recover these memories and finds that he can change the past.
• The film Spellbound: a horrible childhood memory has been suppressed and causes nightmares for years afterwards.
• The video game Final Fantasy VII: the protagonist Cloud Strife carries false memories of his service in SOLDIER, the real memories suppressed after his Mako treatment.
• The anime/manga Elfen Lied: one of the main characters, Kouta, suppressed the majority of his childhood after seeing his little sister being murdered by the protagonist Lucy.
• The anime/manga Fruits Basket: the supporting character, Hatori Sohma had to suppress the memories of his love, Kana, after Akito Sohma blinded Hatori's left eye by throwing a vase at him and blamed Hatori's injury on Kana. The guilt from the accident drove her into madness and Hatori was forced to suppress her memories so that she could once again smile. Hatori has also had to suppress the memories of Yuki Sohma's friends, and Momiji Sohma's mother.
• The anime/manga His and Her Circumstances: When Arima visits his girlfriend, Yukino's house for the first time he realizes he doesn't have a deep bond with his adoptive parents and is confronted with repressed memories of abuse and abandonment from his real parents.
• The novel The Perks of Being a Wallflower: Charlie is confronted with repressed memories of being sexually abused by his aunt in the end of the novel after being upset and confused by sexual contact with his crush/friend, Sam.
• The protagonist of the video game Silent Hill 2, James Sunderland, repressed his memory of murdering his wife prior to the game's events.
• In the movie Total Recall, set in the year 2084, a man travels to Mars for a virtual vacation that implants memories of the trip in his mind, to recall those memories in exact detail. During his trip he recalls the truth about himself.
• In the television series Dexter, main character Dexter Morgan has repressed memories of his mothers brutal murder.

Roger Daltrey as Tommy Tommy was a 1975 musical film, based on The Whos 1969 rock opera concept album Tommy. ... Nurse Betty is a 2000 comedy film directed by Neil LaBute and starring Renée Zellweger, Morgan Freeman, Chris Rock and Greg Kinnear. ... This article or section contains a plot summary that is overly long or excessively detailed compared to the rest of the article. ... Spellbound is a 1945 psychological thriller and mystery film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. ... Final Fantasy VII ) is a console role-playing game developed and published by Square (now Square Enix), and the seventh installment in the Final Fantasy video game series. ... Cloud Strife ) is the protagonist of Squares (now known as Square Enix) role-playing game Final Fantasy VII and several of its sequels and spin-offs. ... Mako (Japanese: 魔晄, Makō; literally meaning shining magic power) is a fictional substance in the computer role-playing game Final Fantasy VII. It is the refined form of the planet’s Lifestream and is the primary source of energy used by Mako reactors throughout the world. ... This article is about the Japanese manga and anime series. ... This article is about the manga and anime franchise. ... Hatori Sohma ) is a fictional character in the manga and anime series entitled Fruits Basket. ... Akito Sohma ) is a character in the manga and anime series entitled Fruits Basket. ... Yuki Sohma ), also known as the Prince of Kaiwaia (or Kaibara) High, is a fictional character in the anime and manga series Fruits Basket. ... Momiji Sohma ) is a fictional character in the manga and anime series entitled Fruits Basket. ... Kare Kano manga, volume 1 (English version) His and Her Circumstances, or Kareshi Kanojo no Jijō (彼氏彼女の事情), or Kare Kano (カレカノ), is a manga by Masami Tsuda and a 26 episode TV anime series, directed by Hideaki Anno of Gainax. ... The Perks of Being a Wallflower (often referred to as TPoBaW) is an epistolary novel written in the 1990s by American novelist Stephen Chbosky. ... This is about the video game released on PlayStation 2, Xbox, and PC. For the upcoming Silent Hill film sequel under the same name, see Silent Hill 2 (film) Silent Hill 2 is the second installment in the Silent Hill Survival horror series. ... This article or section contains a plot summary that may be overly long, confusing, or ambiguous. ... For other uses, see Total recall (disambiguation). ... Adjectives: Martian Atmosphere Surface pressure: 0. ...

References

1. ^ Robbins Susan P.,The Social and Cultural Context of Satanic Ritual Abuse Allegations, published in Institute for Psychological Therapies magazine, vol 10 1998.[1]
2. ^ See, e.g., Brandon, et al. (1998) Recovered Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Implications for Clinical Practice, Working Party report of the British Royal College of Psychiatrists, British Journal of Psychiatry, pgs. 296-307.
3. ^ Gustafson, Paul. Jury awards patient $2.6 million: Verdict finds therapist Humenansky liable in repressed memory trial. Minneapolis St. Paul Tribune, August 1, 1995.
   See also, Associated Press, Doctor Loses False-memory Suit, Chicago Tribune, Wed. Aug. 2, 1995, Sec. 1, pg. 12 "I think the effect is a stunning warning to therapists... and to insurance companies that they had better start obeying the informed consent laws and stop using experimental treatments like recovered memory treatments on patients…," attorney/psychologist R. Christopher Barden said. "This is a huge warning shot to them."
4. ^ Belluck, P. Memory Therapy Leads to a Lawsuit and Big Settlement [$10.6 Million], The New York Times, Page 1, Column 1, Nov. 6, 1997. "The next thing I think there will be is legislation to require informed consent from psychiatric patients for such [recovered memory] 'treatments'," said Dr. R. Christopher Barden, a psychologist and lawyer [for the plaintiff]... "I think insurance companies will stop reimbursing people for mental health treatments that are not proven safe and effective. This is the death knell for recovered memory therapy." And it was.
5. ^ Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse Scientific Research & Scholarly Resources by Jim Hopper, PhD.
6. ^ Recovered Memory Project
7. ^ Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory
8. ^ Recovered Memory Project Archive
9. ^ Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory
10. ^ Summary of Research Examining the Prevalence of Full or Partial Dissociative Amnesia for Traumatic Events
11. ^ Ground Lost: The False Memory/Recovered Memory Therapy Debate, by Alan Scheflin, Psychiatric Times 11/99, Vol. XVI Issue 11
12. ^ Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory
13. ^ http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/9808/19/stress.memory/
14. ^ http://medschool.wustl.edu/~wumpa/news/newcomer.html
15. ^ Pope HG Jr, Oliva PS, Hudson JI. Repressed memories. The scientific status of research on repressed memories. In: Faigman DL, Kaye DH, Saks MJ, Sanders J, eds. Science in the law: social and behavioral science issues. St. Paul, MN: West Group, 2002, pp 487-526.
16. ^ Charles L. Whitfield, M.D., Memory and Abuse, 1995, pg 70
17. ^ Pope HG Jr, Oliva PS, Hudson JI. Repressed memories. The scientific status of research on repressed memories. In: Faigman DL, Kaye DH, Saks MJ, Sanders J, eds. Science in the law: social and behavioral science issues. St. Paul, MN: West Group, 2002, pp 487-526
18. ^ McNally RJ. The science and folklore of traumatic amnesia. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 11:29-33, 2004
19. ^ Barden, R. C. Amicus Brief in Taus v. Loftus, Superme Court of California, Feb. 21, 2006.
20. ^ The False Memory Syndrome Foundation, Memory and Reality, retrieved 11/8/06.
21. ^ Charles Whitfield, MD, Memory and Abuse, 1995, pg 69
22. ^ Brown, Scheflin and Hammond (1998). Memory, Trauma Treatment, And the Law (W. W. Norton) ISBN 0-393-70254-5
23. ^ Kelly Lambert and Scott O. Lilienfeld, [2], 'Scientific American Mind', Oct 2007.
24. ^ Associated Press, Doctor Loses ($2.5 Million) False-memory Suit, Chicago Tribune, Wed. Aug. 2, 1995, Sec. 1, pg. 12.
25. ^ Belluck, P. Memory Therapy Leads to a Lawsuit and Big Settlement [$10.6 Million], The New York Times, Page 1, Column 1, Nov. 6, 1997.
26. ^ False Memory Syndrome: A False Construct by Juliette Cutler Page
27. ^ Annual Criminal Law Conference 2007, Recovered Memory and Adult Disclosure of Child Sexual Assault, by Dr Brent Waters, Consultant Child Psychiatrist.
28. ^ Bass, E.; L. Davis (1988). The courage to heal, 347. 
29. ^ Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery, 13. 
30. ^ Freud, Sigmund (1952). Zur Geschichte der analytischen Bewegung, from: Gesammelte Werke in Einzelbänden (Volume 10) (in German), 55ff. 
31. ^ Martin Gardner (January 2006). "The Memory Wars, Part 1". Skeptical Inquirer Magazine 30(1). 
32. ^ Martin Gardner (March 2006). "The Memory Wars, Parts 2 and 3". Skeptical Inquirer Magazine 30(2). 
33. ^ "Attacking the Invisible: Tools for preventing the admission of 'recovered memory' evidence at trial" by Paige A. Nichols
34. ^ Repressed memories rejected By Liz Chretien, April, 2005

Martin Gardner (b. ... Martin Gardner (b. ...

See also

• Psychogenic amnesia; Dissociative Amnesia (formerly Psychogenic Amnesia) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.12)
• Birth trauma
• Child abuse
• Dissociation (psychology)
• False memory
• Memory inhibition (suppressed memories)
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly Multiple Personality Disorder) (DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders 300.14)
• Post-traumatic stress disorder
• Recovered memory therapy
• The Courage to Heal
• Retroactive interference

Psychogenic Amnesia is a form of amnesia popularized by popular culture, particularly film. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision, also known as DSM-IV-TR is a manual published by the American Psychiatric Association and includes all currently recognized mental health disorders. ... Pre- and perinatal psychology is the study of the psychological implications of the earliest experiences of the individual, before (prenatal) and during (perinatal) childbirth. ... Child abuse is the physical or sexual of children by parents, guardians, or others. ... Dissociation is a state of acute mental decompensation in which certain thoughts, emotions, sensations, and/or memories are compartmentalized because they are too overwhelming for the conscious mind to integrate. ... For the novel, see False Memory (novel) It has been suggested that Synthetic memory be merged into this article or section. ... In order to remember, it is essential not only to activate the relevant information but also to inhibit irrelevant information. ... Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), as defined by the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), is a mental condition whereby a single individual evidences two or more distinct identities or personalities, each with its own pattern of perceiving and interacting with the environment. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision, also known as DSM-IV-TR is a manual published by the American Psychiatric Association and includes all currently recognized mental health disorders. ... Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a term for certain severe psychological consequences of exposure to, or confrontation with, stressful events that the person experiences as highly traumatic. ... Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a psychotherapy that was developed in the 1980s as a way to recover “lost” childhood memories of abuse, as well as other memories of neglect and abuse. ... The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse (first published in 1988) is a book written by Ellen Bass and Laura Davis, aimed at a female audience who have suffered child sexual abuse and who seek to overcome the associated trauma generated by it. ... Retroactive interference occurs when the material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier. ...

External links

• American Psychological Association: Cases study on False Memory
• Recovered Memory information from the American Psychological Association
• 2006 detailed article on Recovered Memories, by Elizabeth Loftus
• Ground Lost: The False Memory/Recovered Memory Therapy Debate, by Alan Scheflin, Psychiatric Times 11/99, Vol. XVI Issue 11
• The Recovered Memory Project - documenting corroborated recovered memories
• http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/abstract/1032/1/183 "Neurobiology of Memory and Dissociation in Trauma Survivors"]
• "The Memory Control Laboratory" - laboratory that studies the cognitive and neural mechanisms of memory control.
• Childhood Trauma Remembered: A report on the current scientific knowledge base and its applications Published by International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies
• Summary of recovered memory debate by ReligiousTolerance.org
• Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory
• Summary of Research Examining the Prevalence of Full or Partial Dissociative Amnesia for Traumatic Events
• Ground Lost: The False Memory/Recovered Memory Therapy Debate, by Alan Scheflin, Psychiatric Times 11/99, Vol. XVI Issue 11
• False Memory Syndrome Facts resources about "false memory syndrome," dissociation, delayed recall, repression, and recovered memories of child abuse and other traumatic events.
• UK false memory website
• USA false memory association
• Recovered Memory article by the Skeptic's Dictionary

The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. It has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... The Skeptics Dictionary is a web site with a collection of cross-referenced skeptical essays by Robert Todd Carroll, PhD. It primarily exposes claims that its editors consider pseudoscientific (sometimes in a pseudoskeptical fashion though). ...

Books

• Freyd, Jennifer J. (1996). Betrayal Trauma - The Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-06805-x. 
• Whitfield M.D., Charles L. (1995). Memory and Abuse - Remembering and Healing the Effects of Trauma. Health Communications, Inc. ISBN 1-55874-320-0. 
• Knopp, Fay Honey (1996). A Primer on the Complexities of Traumatic Memory of Childhood Sexual Abuse - A Psychobiological Approach. Brandon, VT: Safer Society Press. ISBN 1-884444-20-2.