Plato.

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Republic

The Republic is an enormously influential work of philosophy and political theory by the Greek philosopher Plato, written in approximately 390 BC. Written in the form of a dialogue, it concerns what is called philosophia peri ta anthropina (philosophy of the human things) and it encompasses the areas of ontology, epistemology, political philosophy, feminism, ethics generally, medical ethics, communism, and economics. All of these areas and more are examined with a view to discovering the nature of justice; indeed, the engine of the dialogue is this question: What is justice? With this view in mind, Plato (through Socrates) constructs an ideal "city in speech," a theoretical city of theoretically perfect justice. Yet Plato constructs this theoretical city not only to examine the most just city imaginable, but primarily to discover how individuals themselves should best live. On still another level, Plato's Republic is the supreme work addressing the fundamental issue of philosophy; that is, the question of the universal versus the particular. Image File history File links Plato. ... Image File history File links Plato. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikisource – The Free Library – is a Wikimedia project to build a free, wiki library of primary source texts, along with translations of source-texts into any language and other supporting materials. ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ... (5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events Invasion of the Celts into Ireland Battle of the Allia and subsequent Gaulish sack of Rome 383 BCE Second Buddhist Councel at Vesali. ... The term dialogue (or dialog) expresses basically reciprocal conversation between two or more persons. ... In philosophy, ontology (from the Greek , genitive : being (part. ... Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. ... Political philosophy is the study of the fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, property, law and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should... Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. ... Ethics (from Greek ethikos) is the branch of axiology – one of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. ... Communism refers to a conjectured future classless, stateless social organization based upon common ownership of the means of production, and can be classified as a branch of the broader socialist movement. ... Economics (from the Greek οίκος [oikos], house, and νομος [nomos], rule, hence household management) is a social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services. ... This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ...

The original title of the work is the Greek word politeia. "The Republic", which is the traditional English translation of the title, is somewhat of a misnomer, taken from Cicero's latin; a more accurate English title would be "The Regime." Politeia (πολιτεία) is an Ancient Greek word with no single English translation. ...

Setting and dramatis personae

The Republic is one of Plato's longest dialogues, subdivided in 10 books for editorial reasons but more consistently in 12 sections preceded by a prologue and followed by an epilogue.

The main characters in The Republic are:

• Socrates
• Glaucon, a brother of Plato
• Adeimantus, another brother of Plato
• The other minor characters are Cephalus, an elderly arms manufacturer; Polemarchus, son of Cephalus; Thrasymachus, a sophist; his friend Cleitophon; Charmantides, another son of Cephalus
• There are three silent characters: Lysias and Euthydemus, sons of Cephalus, and Niceratus.

The scene of the dialogue is the house of Cephalus at Piraeus, a city-port beyond the walls of ancient Athens; it was the port of entry and exit for trade into the city. Socrates was not known to venture outside of Athens regularly. The whole dialogue is narrated by Socrates the day after it actually took place, to Timaeus, Hermocrates, and Critias, among others. This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ... Thrasymachus was a sophist of Ancient Greece best known as a character in Platos Republic. ... Sophism was originally a term for the techniques taught by a highly respected group of philosophy and rhetoric teachers in ancient Greece. ... Lysias (d. ... Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus (230-200 B.C.) Euthydemus was allegedly a native of Magnesia and possible Satrap of Sogdiana, who overturned the dynasty of Diodotus of Bactria and became a Greco-Bactrian king in about 230 BC according to Polybius. ... View of Piraeus A night ferry about to leave the port of Piraeus for the Dodecanese Piraeus, or Peiraeus (Modern Greek: Πειραιάς Peiraiás or Pireás, Ancient Greek / Katharevousa: Πειραιεύς Pireéfs) is a city in the periphery of Attica, Greece, located south of Athens. ... Timaeus of Locres or Timaeus of Locris or Timaeus of Locri or, in Latin, Timaeus Locrus was a Pythagorean philosopher living in the 5th century BC. He features in Platos Timaeus dialogue, where he is said to come from Locri in Italy. ... Critias, 460-403 BC, was the uncle of Plato, leading member of the Thirty Tyrants, and one of the most violent. ...

Content

The Republic is a wide-ranging and comprehensive dialogue articulated by dramatic scenes and topics of discussion. One can refer to passages of the Republic by the Books, Chapters, and Stephanus pagination of the manuscript and printing tradition. Three interpretations, or summaries of the dialogue follow. Stephanus pagination is the system of reference and organisation used in the works of Plato. ...

Francis Cornford, Kurt Hildebrandt and Eric Voegelin contributed to an establishment of subdivisions marked by special formulae in Greek: Francis Macdonald Cornford (1874-1943) was an English classical scholar and poet. ... Eric Voegelin Eric Voegelin (January 3, 1901 – January 19, 1985) was a political philosopher. ...

Prologue

1. I.1 327a—328b. Descent to the Piraeus
2. I.2—I.5. 328b—331d. Cephalus. Justice of the Older Generation
3. I.6—1.9. 331e—336a. Polemarchus. Justice of the Middle Generation
4. I.10—1.24. 336b—354c. Thrasymachus. Justice of the Sophist

Introduction

II.1—II.10. 357a—369b. The Question: Is Justice Better than Injustice?

Part I: Genesis and Order of the Polis

1. II.11—II.16. 369b—376e. Genesis of the Polis
2. II.1—III.18. 376e—412b. Education of the Guardians
3. III.I9—IV.5. 412b—427c. Constitution of the Polis
4. IV.6—IV.I9. 427c—445e. Justice in the Polis

Part II: Embodiment of the Idea

1. V.1—V.i6. 449a—471c. Somatic Unit of Polis and Hellenes
2. V.17—VI.I4- 471c—502c. Rule of the Philosophers
3. VI.19—VII.5. 502c—521c. The Idea of the Agathon
4. VII.6—VII.18. 521c—541b. Education of the Philosophers

Part III: Decline of the Polis

1. VIII.1—VIII.5. 543a—550c. Timocracy
2. VIII.6—VIII.9. 550c—555b. Oligarchy
3. VIII.10—VIII.13. 555b—562a. Democracy
4. VIII.I4—IX-3. 562a—576b. Tyranny

Conclusion

IX-4—IX.13. 576b—592b Answer: Justice is Better than Injustice

Epilogue

X.1—X.8. 595a—608b. Rejection of Mimetic Art

X-9—X.11. 608c—612a. Immortality of the Soul

X. 12 612a—613e. Rewards of Justice in Life

X.I3—X,16. 613e—631d. Judgment of the Dead

1. The paradigm of the city - the idea of the Good, of the Agathon - has for Plato a manifold of historical embodiments. The embodiment must be undertaken by those who have seen the Agathon and are ordered through the vision. Hence, in the centre piece of the Republic, Part II, 2-3, Plato deals with the rule of the philosopher and the vision of the Agathon in the famous allegory of the cave, with which Plato clarifies his theory of forms.
2. That center piece is preceded and followed by the discussion of the means that will secure a well-ordered polis. Part II, 1 deals with marriage, the community of people and goods for the guardians, and the restraints on warfare among the Hellenes. It has been incorrectly described as a communistic utopia, a word that is not even extant in classical Greek. Part II, 4 deals with the philosophical education of the rulers who will preserve the order.
3. The central Part II, the Embodiment of the Idea, is preceded by the building of economic and social of order for a polis in Part I; and is followed by an analysis in Part III, of the decline through which the right order will have to pass. The three parts form the main body of the dialogue, with their discussion of paradigm , its embodiment, its genesis, and its decline.
4. That main body is framed by an Introduction and a Conclusion. The discussion of right order was occasioned by a question whether justice is better than injustice, or whether unjust man will not fare better than the just man. The introductory question is balanced by the concluding answer that justice is preferable to injustice.
5. The main body of the dialogue, together with its Introduction and Conclusion, finally, is framed by the Prologue of Book I and the Epilogue of Book X. The prologue is a short dialogue in itself and it portrays the common opinions doxai about justice. The Epilogue is not grounded on reason but on faith. It describes the new arts and the immortality of the soul.

Bertrand Russell sees three parts in Plato's Republic ⁽¹⁾: Platos cave Platos allegory of the cave is perhaps the best-known of his many metaphors, allegories, and myths. ... The Right Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was an influential British logician, philosopher, and mathematician, working mostly in the 20th century. ...

• Book I-V: the Utopia part, portraying the ideal community, starting from an attempt to define justice;
• Book VI-VII: since philosophers are seen as the ideal rulers of such community, this part of the text concentrates on defining what a philosopher is;
• Book VIII-X: discusses several practical forms of government, their pros and cons.

The core of the second part is discussed in Plato's Allegory of the Cave, and articles related to Plato's theory of (ideal) forms. The third part, concentrating also on education, is also strongly related to Plato's dialogue The Laws - see Laws (Plato) It influenced the A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Illustration of Platos cave Platos allegory of the cave is perhaps the best-known of his many metaphors, allegories, and myths. ... Platonic realism is a metaphysical theory of universals, maintaining that universals exist in a realm that is separate from space and time. ... The Laws is Platos last and longest dialogue. ...

The German-born American political theorist, Leo Strauss, sees a four-part structure of the dialogue: he looks at the entire dialogue as a drama played out between particular characters, each with particular points of view and levels of comprehension: Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973), was an American political philosopher of German-Jewish extraction, who specialized in the relativization of classical philosophy during his decades at the University of Chicago. ...

• Book I: Socrates is compelled by force to Cephalus's home. Three definitions of justice are presented, and all three are found lacking.
• Books II-V: Socrates is challenged by Glaucon and Adeimantus to prove why a perfectly just person, who is seen by the entire world as unjust, would be happier than the perfectly unjust person, who hides his injustice from view and is seen by the entire world as just. This stark challenge is the engine and drive of the dialogue; it is only with this 'charge' that we begin to witness how Socrates actually conducted himself with the young men of Athens he was convicted of corrupting. Because a definition of justice is assumed by Glaucon and Adeimantus, Socrates makes a detour; he forces the group to try to uncover justice, and then to answer the question posed to him about the intrinsic value of the just life.
• Books V-VI: The 'Just City in Speech' is now built from the earlier books, and three waves or critiques of the city are encountered. According to Leo Strauss and his student Allan Bloom they are: communism, communism of wives and children, and the rule of philosophers. The 'Just City in Speech’ stands or falls by these complications.
• Books VII-X: Socrates has 'escaped' his capturers, for he has convinced them, at least for the moment, that the just man is the happy man. He then spends much time reinforcing their prejudices. He displays a rationale for political decay, and he ends the dialogue recounting a myth, The Myth of Er, or everyman, which acts as a consolation for non-philosophers who fear death.

Allan Bloom, in his middle age. ... The Myth of Er is an analogy used in Platos Republic. ... Everyman is a 16th century English morality play. ...

Definition of justice

The question with which sets out is to define justice. Given the difficulty of this task, Socrates and his interlocutors are led into a discussion of justice in the city, which they see as the same as justice in the person, but on a grander (and therefore easier to discuss) scale. Because of this, some critics (such as Julia Annas) interpret Plato's paradigm of a just state as an allegory for the paradigm of the just person. This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ...

Justice is defined as working at the role which you are best suited for and not interfering in the work of others. This conception of justice, striking to the modern reader, is closely linked to the Greek conception of dike, the just order. This definition of justice leads to a social structure radically different from most previous and subsequent states. In Greek mythology, the Horae (hours) were the three goddesses controlling orderly life. ...

Plato defines justice as "working at that which he is naturally best suited," and "to do one's own business and not to be a busybody" (433a-433c) and goes on to say that justice sustains and perfects the other three cardinal virtues, Temperance, Wisdom, and Courage and that justice is the cause and condition of their existence.

The form of government

Socrates points out the human tendency to corruption by power and thus the road from timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny: ruling should be left to philosophers, the most just and therefore least susceptible to corruption. That "good city" is depicted as being governed by philosopher-kings; disinterested persons who rule not for their personal enjoyment but for the good of the city-state (polis). The paradigmatic society which stands behind every historical society is hierarchical, but social classes have a marginal permeability; there are no slaves, no discrimination between men and women. In addition to the ruling class of guardians (phulakes) which abolished riches there is a class of private producers (demiourgoi) be they rich or poor. A number of provisions aim to avoid making the people weak: the substitution of debilitating music, poetry and theatre by a universal educational system for men and women -- a startling departure from Greek society. These provisions apply to all classes, and the restrictions placed on the philosopher-kings and the warriors are much more severe than those placed on the producers, because the rulers must be kept away from any source of corruption. Most of what we know about Socrates comes from what was written about him by Plato. ... It has been suggested that Bases of power be merged into this article or section. ... A polis (πολις) — plural: poleis (πολεις) — is a city, or a city-state. ...

In PART II of the Republic the abolishment of riches among the guardian class (not unlike Max Weber's bureaucracy) leads controversially to the abandonment of the typical family, and as such no child may know his or her parents and the parents may not know their own children. Socrates tells a tale which is the "allegory of the good government". No nepotism, no private goods. The rulers assemble couples for reproduction, based on breeding criteria. Thus, stable population is achieved through eugenism and social cohesion is projected to be high because familiar links are extended towards everyone in the City. Also the education of the youth is such that they are taught of only works of writing that encourage them to improve themselves for the state's good, and envision (the) god(s) as entirely good, just, and the author(s) of only that which is good. Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ...

In Part III of The Republic stand Plato's criticism of the forms of government. It begins with the dismissal of timocracy, a sort of authoritarian regime, not unlike a military dictatorship. Plato offers a psychoanalytical explanation of the "timocrat" as one who saw his father humiliated by his mother and wants to vindicate "manliness". The third worst regime is oligarchy, the rule of a small band of rich people, millionaires that only respect money. Then comes the democratic form of government, and its susceptibility to being ruled by unfit "sectarians" demagogues. Finally the worst regime is tyranny, where the whimsical desires of the ruler became law and there is no check upon arbitrariness. Democracy (from Greek δημοκρατία (demokratia), δημος (demos) the common people + κρατειν (kratein) to rule + the suffix ία (ia), literally the common people rule) is a system where the population of a society controls the government. ... ...

Theory of universals

The Republic contains Plato's Allegory of the cave with which he explains his concept of The Forms as an answer to the problem of universals. Illustration of Platos cave Platos allegory of the cave is perhaps the best-known of his many metaphors, allegories, and myths. ... Plato spoke of forms (sometimes capitalized: The Forms) in formulating his solution to the problem of universals. ... The problem of universals is a phrase used to refer to a nest of intertwined problems about universals within the philosophy of language, cognitive psychology, epistemology, and ontology. ...

Reception and interpretation

Ancient Greece

The idea of writing treatises on systems of government was followed some decades later by Plato's most prominent pupil Aristotle. He wrote a treatise for which he used another Greek word "politika" in the title. The title of Aristotle's work is however conventionally translated to "politics": see Politics (Aristotle). Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Aristotelēs 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... Politika/Политика is a Serbian newspaper. ... The Politics of Aristotle is the second half of a single treatise of which his Ethics is the first. ...

Aristotle's treatise was not written in dialogue format: it systematises many of the concepts brought forward by Plato in his Republic, in some cases leading the author to a different conclusion as to what options are the most preferable.

Ancient Rome

Cicero

The English translation of the title of Plato's dialogue is derived from Cicero's De re publica, a dialogue written some three centuries later. Cicero's dialogue imitates the style of the Platonic dialogues, and treats many of the topics touched upon in Plato's Republic. Scipio Africanus, the main character of Cicero's dialogue expresses his esteem for Plato and Socrates when they are talking about the "Res publica". "Res publica" is however not an exact translation of the Greek word "politeia" that Plato used in the title of his dialogue: "politeia" is a general term indicating the various forms of government that could be used and were used in a Polis or city-state. Marcus Tullius Cicero (standard English pronunciation ; Classical Latin pronunciation ) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. ... De re publica is a work by Cicero, written in six books 54-51 BC, in the format of a Socratic dialogue, that is to say: Scipio Africanus Minor (who had died a few decades before Cicero was born) takes the role of wise old man, that is an obligatory... Storybook illustration depicting Scipio as the reluctant servant of the Senate as he orchestrated the genocide of the Carthaginians. ... Res publica is a Latin phrase, made of res + publica, literally meaning public thing. It is the origin of the word Republic. // Etymology The word publica is the feminine singular of the 1st and 2nd declension adjective publicus, publica, publicum, which is itself derived from an earlier form, poplicus—relating...

While in Plato's Republic Socrates and his friends discuss the nature of the city and are engaged in providing the foundations of every state they are living in (which was Athenian democracy or oligarchy or tyranny - in Cicero's De re publica all comments, are more parochial about (the improvement of) the organisation of the state the participants live in, which was the Roman Republic in its final stages. Sydney, Australia at Night. ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ...

Critique

In Antiquity Plato's works were largely acclaimed, still, some commentators had another view. Tacitus, not mentioning Plato or The Republic nominally in this passage (so his critique extends, to a certain degree, to Cicero's Republic and Aristotle's Politics as well, to name only a few), noted the following (Ann. IV, 33): Gaius Cornelius Tacitus Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (ca. ... The Politics of Aristotle is the second half of a single treatise of which his Ethics is the first. ... The Annals, or, in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the 4 Roman Emperors succeeding to Caesar Augustus. ...

The point Tacitus develops in the paragraphs immediately preceding and following that quote is that the minute analysis and description of how a real state was governed, like he does in his Annals, however boring the related facts might be (...if, for example, the regnants refuse to declench a spectacular war,...), has more practical lessons about good vs. bad governance, than philosophical treatises on the ideal form of government have.⁽²⁾ Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy. ...

Augustine

In the pivotal era of Rome's move from its ancient polytheist religion to Christianity, Augustine wrote his magnum opus The City of God: again, the references to Plato, Aristotle and Cicero and their visions of the ideal state were legion: Augustinus equally described a model of the "ideal city", in his case the eternal Jerusalem, using a visionary language not unlike that of the preceding philosophers. Polytheism stevenis gay, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. ... St. ... The City of God, opening text, created c. ... Jerusalem (31°46′N 35°14′E; Hebrew: (help· info) Yerushalayim; Arabic: (help· info) al-Quds) is an ancient Middle Eastern city on the watershed between the Mediterranean Sea and the Dead Sea at an elevation of 650-840 meter. ...

Utopias

Thomas More, when writing his Utopia, invented the technique of using the portrayal of a "utopia" as the carrier of his thoughts about the ideal society. Portrait of Sir Thomas More, by Hans Holbein the Younger (1527). ... See Utopia (disambiguation) for other meanings of this word Utopia, in its most common and general meaning, refers to a hypothetical perfect society. ...

The Orwellian dystopia depicted in the novel 1984 had many characteristics in common with Plato's description of the allegory of the Cave as Winston Smith strives to liberate himself from it. Orwellian describes a situation, idea, or condition that George Orwell identified as being inimical to the welfare of a free-society. ... This article is about the philosophical concept and literary form. ... A centennial edition of Nineteen Eighty-Four Nineteen Eighty-Four (or 1984) is an allegorical political novel written by George Orwell. ... Platos cave Platos allegory of the cave is perhaps the best-known of his many metaphors, allegories, and myths. ...

Open Society or Closed Society?

The positivistic-minded 20th century commentators of Plato's Republic advise against reading it as a (would-be) manual for good governance: most forms of government discussed in The Republic bear little resemblance to more recent state organisations like (modern) republics, constitutional monarchies, etc. The concepts of democracy and of Utopia as depicted in The Republic are tied to the city-states of ancient Greece and their relevance to modern states is questionable. The city portrayed in The Republic struck some critics as unduly harsh, rigid, and unfree; indeed, as a kind of precursor to modern totalitarianism. Karl Popper gave a voice to that view in his 1945 The Open Society and its Enemies In a broad definition, a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchical government established under a constitutional system which acknowledges a hereditary or elected monarch as head of state. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Ancient Greece is the term used to describe the Greek-speaking world in ancient times. ... Totalitarianism describes a form of government where the state exercises absolute political and social control over most or all aspects of public and private behavior, there is no regard for individualism, and political opposition is typically subject to violent or arbitrary repression. ... Sir Karl Raimund Popper (July 28, 1902 – September 17, 1994), was an Austrian and British philosopher of science and a professor at the London School of Economics. ... 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Open Society and Its Enemies is an influential two-volume work by Karl Popper written during World War II. Failing to find a publisher in the United States, it was first printed in London, in 1945. ...

On the other side, realistic commentators like Cornford, Gadamer, Hildebrandt, Voegelin and Strauss have other views. Hans-Georg Gadamer in his 1934 Plato und die Dichter (Plato and the Poets), as well as several other works, where the utopic city of The Republic is seen as a heuristic utopia that should not be pursued or even be used as an orientation-point for political development. Rather, its purpose is said to be to show how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another — often with highly problematic results — if one would opt for certain principles and carry them through rigorously. This interpretation argues that large passages in Plato's writing are ironic (which, of course, an unusually high level of proficiency in ancient Greek is required to detect). In this interpretation Plato's entire oeuvre is not totalitarian: it modifies the interpretation of the imagined city of Plato's Republic from an exclusive optimist Utopia, to an (at least) partial Dystopia. Hans-Georg Gadamer Hans-Georg Gadamer (February 11, 1900 – March 13, 2002) was a German philosopher best known for his 1960 magnum opus, Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode). ... Heuristic is the art and science of discovery and invention. ... Utopian, in its most common and general positive meaning, like these next few examples this refers to the human efforts to create a better, or perhaps perfect society. ... The concept of Totalitarianism is a typology or ideal-type used by some political scientists to encapsulate the characteristics of a number of twentieth century regimes that mobilized entire populations in support of the state or an ideology. ... This article is about the philosophical concept and literary form. ...

Eric Voegelin in Plato and Aristotle, Baton Rouge, 1957, gave meaning to the concept of ‘Just City in Speech’ (Books II-V). For instance, there is evidence in the dialogue that Socrates himself would not be a member of his 'ideal' state. His life was almost solely dedicated to the private pursuit of knowledge. More practically, Socrates suggests that members of the lower classes could rise to the higher ruling class, and vice versa, if they had ‘gold’ in their veins. It is a crude version of the concept of social mobility. The exercise of power is built on the ‘Noble Lie’ that all men are brothers, philadelphia born of the earth, yet there is a clear hierarchy and class divisions. There is a tri-partite explanation of human psychology that is extrapolated to the city, the relation among peoples. There is no family among the guardians, another crude version of Max Weber's concept of bureaucracy as the state non-private concern. This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ... Knowledge is information of which someone is aware. ... This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Philadelphia is a village located in Jefferson County, New York. ... A family of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso in 1997 A family is a domestic group of people, or a number of domestic groups, typically affiliated by birth or marriage, or by comparable legal relationships including domestic partnership, adoption, surname and in some cases ownership (as was the case in the Roman... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern, antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration. ... Bureaucracy , or red tape is a concept in sociology and political science. ...

Some of Plato’s proposals have led philosophers like Leo Strauss and Allan Bloom to ask readers to consider the possibility that Socrates was creating not a blueprint for a real city, but a learning exercise for the young men in the dialogue. The ruling class will have ‘sacred’ marriages because these are the result of manipulating and drugging couples into predetermined intercourse with the aim of eugenically breeding guardian-warriors. In turn, Plato has immortalized this ‘learning exercise’ in The Republic. Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ... A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. ... Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973), was an American political philosopher of German-Jewish extraction, who specialized in the relativization of classical philosophy during his decades at the University of Chicago. ... Allan Bloom, in his middle age. ... This article is about the ancient Greek philosopher, for all other uses see: Socrates (disambiguation) Socrates (June 4, ca. ... Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ...

Leo Strauss's approach developed out a belief that Plato wrote esoterically, an insight which although presently accepted by many North American academics, is still rather poorly conceived. The basic acceptance of the exoteric-esoteric distinction revolves around whether Plato really wanted to see “The Just City in Speech” of Books V-VI come to pass, or whether it is just an allegory. However, it is clear Strauss never regarded this as the crucial issue. In fact, Strauss undermines the justice found in “The Just City in Speech” by implying the city is not natural, it is man made abstraction, and hence ironic. Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn) (c. ... Exoteric knowledge is knowledge that is publicly available, in contrast with esoteric knowledge, which is kept from everyone except the initiated. ... Etymology Esoteric is an adjective originating during Hellenic Greece under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek esôterikos, from esôtero, the comparative form of esô: within. It is a word meaning anything that is inner and occult, a latinate word meaning hidden (from which... David McCarthy of Lower Columbia College says that An allegory (from Greek αλλος, allos, other, and αγορευειν, agoreuein, to speak in public) is a figurative mode of representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition to the cularly important case is the Song of Songs, which was accepted as canonical only...

One of the most convincing arguments against these less dismissive interpretations is that Plato's academy has produced a number of tyrants, despite being well-versed in Greek and having direct contact with Plato himself. Among his direct students were Klearchos, tyrant of Heraklia, Chairon, tyrant of Pellene, Eurostatos and Choriskos, tyrants of Skepsis, Hermias, tyrant of Atarneos and Assos, and Kallipos, tyrant of Syracuse. Against this, however, it can be argued, first, that the question is whether these men became "tyrants" through studying in the Academy (but rather that it was an elite student body, part of which would wind up in the seats of power, that was sent to study there), and, second, that it is by no means obvious that they were tyrants in the modern, or any totalitarian, sense. A tyrant (from Greek τύραννος týrannos) is a usurper of rightful power, possessing absolute power and ruling by tyranny. ... Obscure Christian Apologist, presumed to have lived in 3rd century, nothing is known of him, except his name. ... Assos (Behramkale) - located in Turkey Aristotle lived here and St Paul visited, but today visitors go to Assos as a tranquil Aegean-coast seaside retreat amid ancient ruins. ... Map of central Mediterranean Sea, showing location of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. ...

Practicality

All these 20th century views have something in common: in spite of the near-impossibility of grasping the meanings of the ancient Greek for modern readers, the pedagogical value of The Republic is much greater than its practical value. It is a theoretical work, not a set of guidelines for good governance. Plato scholars see it as their task to provide the background knowledge that is needed to gain a fair understanding of what was meant by the author of The Republic. Then the uniqueness of The Republic shows up in the way it clarifies genuine connections of political causes and effects in real life, precisely by providing them with a heuristically rich context.

Nonetheless Bertrand Russell argues that at least in intent, and all in all not so far from what was possible in ancient Greek city-states, the form of government portrayed in The Republic was meant as a practical one by Plato.⁽³⁾ The Right Honourable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970), was an influential British logician, philosopher, and mathematician, working mostly in the 20th century. ...

21st Century

By the end of the 20th century, some authors exploited Utopia/Dystopia ambiguities in their descriptions of imaginary societies. A book in this vein is Nobel Prize winner José Saramago's Ensaio sobre a Lucidez ("Treatise on Lucidity", 2004): an election count turns out 83% blank votes in one city of the country, without discernible reason. Is this democracy at its best or just a nightmare? Although the book is clearly meant as a political statement, it's left to the reader's "lucidity" to decide on the interpretation. Utopian, in its most common and general positive meaning, like these next few examples this refers to the human efforts to create a better, or perhaps perfect society. ... This article is about the philosophical concept and literary form. ... The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of Alfred Nobel, produced the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency. The work in this case generally refers to an authors work as a whole, not to any individual... José Saramago José Saramago (pron. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Similarities In Literature

Around the same time that The Republic was being composed, the playwright Aristophanes produced the play Assemblywomen. The state formed by the women in this play bears many similarities to the ideal government described by Plato. It is unsure which was released first; most likely Aristophanes had heard an early form of The Republic before it was completed and used it as the basis for Assemblywomen. A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is someone who writes dramatic literature or drama. ... Bust of Aristophanes Aristophanes (c. ... Aristophanes Assemblywomen (or in Greek Ecclesiazousae ) is a play similar in theme to Lysistrata in that a large portion of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. ...

The form of government described in the Republic has been adapted in several modern dystopic novels and stories. The separation of people by professional class, assignment of profession and purpose by the state, and the absence of traditional family units, replaced by state-organized breeding, was included by authors in descriptions of totalitarian dystopic governments. Government which bears resemblance to Plato's Republic is found in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Lois Lowry's The Giver. Book cover of Brave New World. ... The Giver cover The Giver is a soft science fiction novel written by Lois Lowry and published in 1993. ...

A more positive view of an Platonic style government would be Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers. His citizen can be compared to a Platonic Guardian, without the communal breeding and property, but still having a militaristic base. Although there significant differences in the specifics of the system, Heinlein and Plato both endorse systems of limited franchise, with a political class that has earned their power and wisely governs the whole. Starship Troopers is a science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein published in 1959. ...

In Thomas More's Utopia, the island Utopia is also similar to Plato's Republic in some aspects, among them common property and the lack of privacy. Utopian, in its most common and general positive meaning, like these next few examples this refers to the human efforts to create a better, or perhaps perfect society. ...

See also

• Mixed government
• Myth of Er
• Philosopher king
• The Spindle of Necessity

Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy. ... An analogy used in Platos Republic. ... Philosopher-kings are the hypothetical rulers of Platos utopian Kallipolis. ... In The Republic by Plato, The Spindle of Necessity is mentioned in Book 10, Myth of Er. ...

Notes

• Note (1): Eric Voegelin, Plato and Aristotle, Louisiana University Press, Baton Rouge, 1956.
• Note (1): History of Western Philosophy, begin of Book I, part 2, ch. 14.
• Note (2): This text by Tacitus also mirrors the first paragraphs of Polybius' Histories: Tacitus clearly sides with Polybius who also touts the importance of studying real history for improving knowledge on good governance - However Polybius can boast in these same opening paragraphs his story is about glorious facts and warfare; Tacitus argues the fact remains true, even if the story is less glorious. For this reason Tacitus' critique is only partially directed at Cicero, who learnt not less from Polybius and war heroes like Scipio, as from the more philosophical/utopian Greek writers.
• Note (3): History of Western Philosophy, end of Book I, part 2, ch. 14.

Bertrand Russells A History of Western Philosophy : And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day has the ambitious goal of tracing Western philosophy from the earliest times to Russells modern day, which was the nineteen sixties. ... Polybius (ca 203 BC - 120 BC, Greek Πολυβιος) was a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world famous for his book called The Histories or The Rise of the Roman Empire, covering the period of 220 BC to 146 BC. // Personal experiences As the former tutor of Scipio Aemilianus , the famous adopted... Marcus Tullius Cicero (standard English pronunciation ; Classical Latin pronunciation ) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. ... Bertrand Russells A History of Western Philosophy : And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day has the ambitious goal of tracing Western philosophy from the earliest times to Russells modern day, which was the nineteen sixties. ...

References

• Plato The Republic, (New CUP translation into English) ISBN 052148443X
• Plato Respublica, (New OUP edition of Greek text) ISBN 0199248494
• Bloom, Allan David. The Republic of Plato translated, with notes, and an interpretive essay. 2nd ed. Basic Books: New York, 1991
• Russell, Bertrand. History of Western Philosophy. Simon & Schuster: New York, 1946. - See: two chapters to Plato's Republic, plus a preliminary one on the origin of Plato's concepts: Book I, Part 2, Ch. 13-15.
• Strauss, Leo. 'Plato' History of Political Philosophy 3rd ed. University Of Chicago Press: Chicago, p. 34-68 1987.

The headquarters of the Cambridge University Press, in Trumpington Street, Cambridge. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ...

External links

• Text of The Republic:
  • At Project Gutenberg: Benjamin Jowett's translation (including an elaborate introduction) : e-text N° 1497
  • At Perseus Project: Annotated text (English and Greek)
  • At MIT's "Internet Classics Archive": Benjamin Jowett's translation
  • RSS version of The Republic
• Ongoing discussion of Plato's text (and Popper's analysis):
  • On Bookshelved Wiki
  • On Meatball Wiki
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ethics and Politics in The Republic