National motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus (Latin: "The Senate and the Roman People")
Official language	Latin
Capital	Rome
Government	Res Publica
Head of state	Two Consuls, in times of military emergency Dictator
Advisory Council	Roman Senate
Legislature	Roman assemblies
Establishment	510 BC
Dissolution	16 of January 27 BC, final point of a gradual subversion into the Roman Empire
First consul(s)	Lucius Junius Brutus, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (509 BC-508 BC)
Last consul(s)	Unclear, as consuls continued to be elected under the Emperors
Preceding state	Roman Kingdom
Succeeding state	Roman Empire
See also	Graphical timeline
edit

See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century).

The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. The republican period began with the overthrow of the Monarchy in 510 BC and lasted until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government. The precise date in which the Roman Republic changed into the Roman Empire is disputed, with the dates of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (September 2, 31 BC), and the date which the Roman Senate granted Octavian the title "Augustus" (January 16, 27 BC), all being advanced as candidates. Map of Roman Republic under Julius Caesar. ... Here is a list of state mottos for countries and their subdivisions around the world. ... See also the SPQR series of murder mystery novels and the SPQR board game. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... An official language is a language that is given a privileged legal status in a state, or other legally-defined territory. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... In politics, a capital (also called capital city or political capital — although the latter phrase has an alternative meaning based on an alternative meaning of capital) is the principal city or town associated with its government. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Left-Wing Democrats) Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,553,873 almost 4,300,000 1. ... In a broad definition, a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... Queen Elizabeth II, is the Head of State in many Commonwealth countries including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Jamaica, New Zealand, the Bahamas and many more, as well as crown colonies and overseas territories of the United Kingdom. ... Consul (abbrev. ... Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC Events and Trends Establishment of the Roman Republic March 12, 515 BC - Construction is completed on the... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC - 20s BC - 10s BC 0s 10s 20s 30s Years: 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC 25 BC 24 BC 23 BC 22... Subversion is an overturning or uprooting. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Lucius Iunius Brutus Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC. Prior to his election, Rome had been ruled by kings. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Roman Emperor is the term historians use to refer to rulers of the Roman Empire, after the epoch conventionally named the Roman Republic. ... King of Rome redirects here. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Image File history File links Timeline_icon. ... See also ancient Roman Republic and Roman Republic (19th century). ... Military flag of the Roman Republic. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Res publica is a Latin phrase, made of res + publica, literally meaning public thing. It is the origin of the word Republic. // Etymology The word publica is the feminine singular of the 1st and 2nd declension adjective publicus, publica, publicum, which is itself derived from an earlier form, poplicus—relating... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... In a broad definition, a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... King of Rome redirects here. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC Events and Trends Establishment of the Roman Republic March 12, 515 BC - Construction is completed on the... Subversion is an overturning or uprooting. ... There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... The Principate is, according to its etymological derivation from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a head of state and government. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... A bust of Julius Caesar. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... Caesar Augustus (Latin:Imperator Caesari Divi Filius Augustus) ¹ (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), known to modern historians as Octavian for the period of his life prior to 27 BC, was the first and one of the most important Roman Emperors, though he downplayed his own position by... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC - 20s BC - 10s BC 0s 10s 20s 30s Years: 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC 25 BC 24 BC 23 BC 22...

Location

Further information: Roman province, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The city of Rome itself stands on the banks of the river Tiber, very near the west coast of Italy. It marked the border between the regions of Latium (the territory in which the Latin language and culture was dominant) to the south, and Etruria (the territory in which the Etruscan language and culture was dominant) to the north. Map of Roman Republic under Julius Caesar. ... Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after AD 120. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Left-Wing Democrats) Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,553,873 almost 4,300,000 1. ... Tiber River in Rome The River Tiber (Italian Tevere), the third-longest river in Italy at 406 km (252 miles) after the Po and the Adige, flows through Rome in its course from Mount Fumaiolo to the Tyrrhenian Sea, which it reaches in two branches that cross the suburbs of... Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. ... Etruria — usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia — was an ancient country in Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium and Umbria. ... See: Etruscan civilization Etruscan language Etruscan alphabet Etruscan mythology See also: Tyrrhenian, Lemnian, Pelasgian. ...

The Roman republic would expand outwards from this single city state. Eventually it would include all of the Italian peninsula, large parts of Gaul and Hispania, much of the Greek peninsula, parts of the Balkans, coastal regions of Asia Minor, part of the north African coastline, Corsica, Sardina, and Sicily. The Italian peninsula or the Apennine peninsula is one of the greatest peninsulas of Europe, spanning 1000 km from the Alps in the north, to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ... This article is about an ancient civilization in southeastern Europe; see also Illyria (software), Illyria (character in the TV series Angel). ... The Roman province of Asia was the administrative unit added to the late Republic, a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul who was an ex-consul, an honor granted only to Asia and the other rich province of Africa. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Ancient Roman provinces ... Corsica et Sardinia is an ancient Roman province including Corsica and Sardinia. ... Corsica et Sardinia is an ancient Roman province including Corsica and Sardinia. ... Sicilia (Latin) was the name given to the first province acquired by the Roman Republic in its rise to Empire, organised in 241 BCE as a proconsular governed territory in the aftermath of the First Punic War with Carthage. ...

The structure of republican Rome

The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. Roman women (who were not considered citizens) and non-citizens were not allowed to wear one.

Image File history File links Roman clad in toga, from 1891 Dictionary of Classical Antiquities File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Roman clad in toga, from 1891 Dictionary of Classical Antiquities File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Roman clad in toga The toga was a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome. ... In the Roman Republic and later in the Roman Empire, all men could be very roughly divided into three classes. ...

The people

Like much of early Rome, the ethnic origins of the Roman people are unclear. Existing on the border of Latium and Etruria, it is debated whether the Romans were originally an ancient Italic people from the Latin region who were influenced (some say conquered at one point) by the Etruscans, or Etruscans with italic influence. Either way, it seems likely that the Romans were heavily influenced by both cultures, and incorporated aspects from both cultures. Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. ... Etruria — usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia — was an ancient country in Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium and Umbria. ... Ancient Italic peoples are all those peoples that lived in Italy before the Roman domination. ... Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. ... The Etruscan civilization existed in Etruria and the Po valley in the northern part of what is now Italy, prior to the formation of the Roman Republic. ... The Etruscan civilization existed in Etruria and the Po valley in the northern part of what is now Italy, prior to the formation of the Roman Republic. ... Ancient Italic peoples are all those peoples that lived in Italy before the Roman domination. ...

The inhabitants

Main article: Roman citizenship

The Roman Republic had many different classes of people who existed within the state. Each one of them had differing rights, responsibilities, and status under Roman law. The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ... Roman Law is the legal system of ancient Rome. ...

Full citizens of Rome were invariably free, property owning, men. The citizens of Rome and their families were divided into two orders or classes, known as the Patricians and Plebeians. These two social classes were hereditary, based on one's ancestry. In the early Republic, patricians monopolized all political offices and probably most of the wealth, but there are signs of wealthy and influential plebeians in the later republican records. Likewise, many patrician families lost both wealth and political influence in the later Republic. By the 2nd century BC the distinction was primarily only a religious one, as many of the priesthoods were reserved only for patricians. The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Patricians were originally the elite caste in ancient Rome. ... In Ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. ... (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events 175 BCE - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter. ... Roman Catholic priest LCDR Allen R. Kuss (USN) aboard USS Enterprise A priest or priestess is a holy man or woman who takes an officiating role in worship of any religion, with the distinguishing characteristic of offering sacrifices. ...

The rights of Roman women varied widely throughout the history of the Republic. However, they were never accorded all the rights of citizens; they were not allowed to vote, or stand for public office, although they did have the right to own property.

Roman society also contained large numbers of slaves, who had no rights whatsoever under the law. They were considered property and could be treated however their owner wished. The death of a slave was a matter of property rather than a crime against a human being. Despite this, a freed slave, a freedman, was granted a form of full Roman citizenship, although neither they nor their descendants for three generations, could stand for any public office^[1]. The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ... A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated during the American Civil War. ...

Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin Right was one of them). The promise of improved standing within the Roman "sphere of influence", and the rivalry for standing with one's neighbours, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a status given to a Roman colony intermediate between full Roman Citizenship and not being a citizen at all (peregrines or provincials). ...

The government

Roman republican government was a complex system, which seems to have had several redundancies within it, and was based on custom and tradition, as much as it was on law. King of Rome redirects here. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... The Principate is, according to its etymological derivation from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a head of state and government. ... The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Byzantine Empire (Greek: ) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... Magistratus ordinarii (ordinary magistrates) and Magistrarus extraordinarii (extraordinary magistrates) were two categories of officials who held political, military, and, in some cases, religious power in the Roman Republic. ... Consul (abbrev. ... // Definition According to Cicero, Praetor was a title which designated the consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. ... Quaestors were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... See Roman Governor for the duties of a promagistrate as a governor of a province A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. ... Aedile (Latin Aedilis, from aedes, aedis temple, building) was an office of the Roman Republic. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Censor was the title of two magistrates of high rank in the Roman Republic. ... A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ... Magistratus ordinarii (ordinary magistrates) and Magistrarus extraordinarii (extraordinary magistrates) were two categories of officials who held political, military, and, in some cases, religious power in the Roman Republic. ... The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases, is) a historical position of varying importance in several European nations. ... The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were tribunes elected with consular power during the Conflict of the Orders in the Roman Republic, starting in 444 BCE and then continuiously from 408 BCE to 394 BCE, and again from 391 BCE to 367 BCE. According the the histories of... Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... The term triumvirate is commonly used to describe an alliance between three equally powerful political or military leaders. ... Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning Ten Men which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf. ... Alternate meanings: see Pontifex (disambiguation) In Ancient Rome, the Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most august position in Roman religion, open only to a patrician, until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. ... A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was equivalent to a modern general officer in the Roman army. ... Dux is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, to lead) and could refer to anyone who commanded troops, such as tribal leaders. ... Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings, including service, (sense of) duty, courtesy, ceremony and the likes. ... A prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficio, to make in front, i. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Vigintisexviri (sing. ... The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind), was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant, with special tasks of attending magistrates of the Roman Republic and Empire who held imperium. ... Magister militum (Master of the Soldiers) was a rank used in the later Roman Empire dating from the reign of Constantine. ... The Latin word imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. ... The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the leader of the Roman senate. ... Roman Emperor is the term historians use to refer to rulers of the Roman Empire, after the epoch conventionally named the Roman Republic. ... Augustus (plural augusti) is Latin for majestic or venerable. The feminine form is Augusta. ... Caesar (p. ... The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St. ... This is a tentative list of topics regarding political institutions of Ancient Rome. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... The cursus honorum (Latin: succession of magistracies) was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. ... The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues. ... Roman Law is the legal system of ancient Rome. ... The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ... Imperium can, in a broad sense, be translated as power. ...

The Assemblies and Magistrates

The basis of republican government, at least in theory, was the division of responsibilities between various assemblies, whose members (or blocks of members) would vote on issues placed before their assembly. These assemblies included the Curiate Assembly, the Centuriate Assembly, the Tribal Assembly, the Plebeian Assembly, and the Roman Senate. Membership in such assemblies was limited by such factors as class, order, family, and income. The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ...

Several of these assemblies had specific and specialized functions, such as the Curiate Assembly which conferred Imperium on the Roman magistrates. However, two of these assemblies dominated the political life of the Republic: the Plebeian Assembly, and the Roman Senate. The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ... Imperium can, in a broad sense, be translated as power. ... A magistrate is a civil or criminal (or both) judicial officer with limited authority to administer and enforce the law. ... Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ...

Within the various assemblies, there were a number of magistratus - magistrates, which performed specialized functions. Magistratus ordinarii (ordinary magistrates) and Magistrarus extraordinarii (extraordinary magistrates) were two categories of officials who held political, military, and, in some cases, religious power in the Roman Republic. ...

The Romans observed two principles for their magistrates: annuality, the observation of a one-year term, and collegiality, the holding of the same office by at least two men at the same time. The supreme office of Consul, for instance, was always held by two men together, each of whom exercised a power of mutual veto over any actions by the other consul. If the entire Roman army took the field, it was always under the command of the two consuls who alternated days of command. Many offices were held by more than two men; in the late Republic there were 8 praetors a year and 20 quaestors. Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues. ... Consul (abbrev. ... The word veto comes from Latin and literally means I forbid. ... Soldiers of the Roman Army (on manoeuvres in Nashville, Tennessee) Rome was a militarized state whose history was often closely entwined with its military history over the 1228 years that the Roman state is traditionally said to have existed. ... // Definition According to Cicero, Praetor was a title which designated the consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. ... Quaestors were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ...

The office of dictator was an exception to annuality and collegiality, and the offices of Censors to annuality. In times of military emergency a single dictator was chosen for a term of 6 months to have sole command of the Roman state. On a regular, but not annual basis two censors were elected: every five years for a term of 18 months. Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... Exception may refer to: structured exception exception handling in computer programming a formal objection in legal cases an action that is not part of normal operations or standards Look up Exception in Wiktionary, the free dictionary This is a disambiguation page—a list of articles associated with the same title. ... Censor was the title of two magistrates of high rank in the Roman Republic. ... A state is an organized political community, occupying a territory, and possessing internal and external sovereignty, which successfully claims the monopoly of the use of force. ...

Roman law and its "constitution"

Further information: Twelve tables, and Roman law, and Mos maiorum, and Status in Roman legal system, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The Law of the Twelve Tables (Lex Duodecim Tabularum, more informally simply Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. ... Roman Law is the legal system of ancient Rome. ... The Mos maiorum are traditions of ancestors, an unwritten constitution of laws and conduct in Rome. ... To describe persons position in legal system, Romans mostly used the expression status. ...

The "evolution" of Republican government

During the early and middle Republic, the Roman Senate, highest in prestige and being composed of the aristocratic, rich, and politically influential (it contained many ex-magistrates), predominated the state. The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ...

During the latter years of the Republic, a division developed within the Senate with two factions arising: the Optimates and the Populares. The Optimates held to the traditional forms of Roman government, while the Populares were those who used the fact that the Plebeian Assembly was capable of passing binding laws (plebiscites) on the Republic, to pursue political influence outside the Senate. Since the Senate controlled the finances of the state, this would lead to conflicts between the Senate and the Plebeian Assembly. Many ambitious politicians would use these conflicts to further their political career, advancing themselves as champions either of "Roman tradition", or of "The People". Optimates (Good Men) were the aristocratic faction of the later Roman Republic. ... Populares (Favoring the people, singular popularis) were aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who tended to use the peoples assemblies in an effort to break the stranglehold of the nobiles and optimates on political power. ... Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ...

The military

Main article: Military history of ancient Rome

The Roman legion formed the backbone of Roman military power. Rome used its legions to expand its borders to eventually dominate most of Europe and the area around of the Mediterranean Sea. It has been suggested that Roman military structure be merged into this article or section. ... The Roman legion (from Latin legio, from legere - to collect) was the basic military unit of ancient Rome. ... World map showing Europe Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiogeographic one. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ...

The Roman Legion was one of the first modernized armies. It was a standardized, organized, disciplined military machine, in which the heroics and bravery of individuals were secondary to the function of the army as a whole. Equipment, tactics, organization, and military law was standardized and uniformly implemented. Procedures for everything from training and marching to camp building were laid out specifically, tasks allocated, and each unit and man knew his role and responsibilities within the army as a whole.

The early republic had no standing army. Instead, legions would be conscripted as needed (the term Legion comes from the Latin term Legio - "muster" or "levy"), put into the field to fight the war for which they had been created, and would then disband back to their civilan lives. Troops would be levied from Rome and her surrounding colonies, each which would be responsible for providing a particular number of soldiers. Such conscripts were theoretically taken only from those men who were property/land holders wealthy enough to equip themselves, although in time of dire military need this requirement was overlooked. This made the Roman Legion less expensive to the state, and ensured that the Legions were fighting to preserve their own property and way of life as much as trying to protect "the state". Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...

In the later republic Gaius Marius would institute the Marian reforms which would completely alter the form of the Legion. Not only were the structure and tactics of the Roman military updated, but it was transformed into a standing army, composed mostly of lower-class "career soldiers", who would enlist for a period of 20 years, and be rewarded (traditionally, but not legally guaranteed) with a "land grant" at the end of their term of service. This had the subtle, but important, effect of refocusing the loyalty of the legionnaire who now fought as much for his General and his "pension" as for "the state". Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ... The Marian reforms of 107 BC were a group of reforms proposed by a Roman republic statesman and army general named Gaius Marius. ... See also Legion software and Legion forummer. ...

Each time Rome conquered new lands, the territory would be sectioned off into one or more provinces, under the administration of a Roman governor, chosen annually by the Senate. He would be awarded a promagisterial rank, either proconsular or propraetorial, depending on the size and importance of the province (see Roman provinces for list of governor's ranks). In the later Republic, newly acquired land was often partly used to settle the discharged veterans of the military campaign who had earned their "land grant". This not only "paid off" the army, but had the added benefit of settling Roman people, with Roman customs, bringing Roman culture to newly conquered people: a form of "cultural imperialism" as well as a military one (See: Cultural Romanization). Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120 AD. In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin, provincia, pl. ... A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ... See Roman Governor for the duties of a promagistrate as a governor of a province A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. ... For the Miocene ape, see Proconsul (genus) Under the Roman Empire a proconsul was a promagistrate filling the office of a consul. ... A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office. ... Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120 AD. In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin, provincia, pl. ... Romanizantion was a gradual process of cultural assimilation, in which the conquered barbarians (non-Greco-Romans) gradually adopted and largely replaced their own native culture (which in many cases were quite developed, like the culture of the Gauls or Carthage) by the culture of their conquerors - the Romans. ...

Culture of republican Rome

Main article: culture of ancient Rome

Julius Caesar, from the bust in the British Museum, in Cassells History of England (1902). ...

Greek influence on Rome

It is likely that the Romans first came in contact with Greek civilization through the Greek city-states in southern Italy and in Sicily (both of which formed "Magna Graecia" - "Greater Greece"). These colonies had been established as a result of Greek expansion that took place in these two areas during the classical age of Greece, which began at approximately 479 BC. There is a remarkable commonality between the world of classical Athens and the classical world of Magna Gracia. As proof of this, one need look no further than the Greek temples in Akragas and Silinus in Sicily and the Parthenon of Athens to see that they partake of the same style of architecture at virtually the same level of architectural refinement. Thucydides documents the substantical political and military contacts that the Greek city-states of Sicily had with the Sparta and Athens during the Peloponesian War, and how the Syracusans allied with Sparta were able to defeat the military forces of Athens as they laid siege to Syracuse. Map of Magna Graecia Italy. ... Athens (Greek: Αθήνα Athína IPA ) is the capital of Greece and one of the most famous cities in the world. ... Bust of Thucydides Thucydides (between 460 and 455 BC–circa 400 BC, Greek Θουκυδίδης, Thoukudídês) was an ancient Greek historian, and the author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens. ... Clinton Square in Downtown Syracuse Syracuse is an American city in Central New York. ...

This, inasmuch as trading, as well as the mere day to day interaction between peoples of different cultures, provided opportunities for the Romans to gain exposure to Greek culture, literature, architecture, political and philosophical ideas, religious beliefs and traditions. There was a great sharing of ideas and culture among the peoples of the Mediterranean Sea while Rome was developing into the dominant power in the area.

The Latin alphabet was certainly influenced by the Greek alphabet, and the Latin language itself contains many words of Greek origin. Likewise, it is clear that Virgil was inspired by the works of Homer in his epic poem, the Aeneid. It was not uncommon for wealthy Romans to send their sons to Greece for the purpose of study, most notably in Athens. This Roman passion of Hellenic culture would increase over time. The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. ... Note: This article contains special characters. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... A sculpture of Virgil, probably from the 1st century AD. For other uses, see Virgil (disambiguation). ... Bust of Homer in the British Museum For the fictional character in The Simpsons, see Homer Simpson. ... The Aeneid is a Latin epic written by Virgil in the 1st century BCE (between 29 and 19 BCE) that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy where he became the ancestor of the Romans. ...

Greek and Latin became the lingua franca of the eastern half of the Meditteranean area. Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ...

The role of culture in Rome

The priesthood: religion in republican Rome

See also: Roman religion Religion in ancient Rome combined several different cult practices and embraced more than a single set of beliefs. ...

Roman legends

Few sources of Rome have survived which were written before the last decades of the Republic, and none of those is complete. By that time, the Romans retold a lengthy and complex sequence of stories about their own history, which were clearly intended as models of Roman character, good and bad, and examples for living Romans. Unfortunately, there is little evidence for early Roman history aside from this cycle, and strong reasons to believe that many of the stories did not actually happen as they are told. Many of them are borrowed from pre-existing Greek stories; some of them are plainly family stories in praise of great Roman families; some of them are aetiologies of Roman instutions which were not invented in Rome, but were common to a much larger area. Etiology (alternately aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. ...

Founding of the City

See main article: Founding of Rome

According to Roman mythology, after the end of the Trojan war, the Trojan prince Aeneas sailed across the Mediterranean Sea to Italy and founded the city of Lavinium. His son Iulus later founded the city of Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa's royal family came the twins Romulus and Remus (supposedly sons of the god Mars by Rhea Silvia), who went on to found the city of Rome on April 21, 753 BC. Thus the Romans traced their origins back to the Hellenic world. An Italian poster from World War II using the Romulus and Remus myth: the wolf is tearing apart a Union Jack to encourage Italians to buy war bonds The founding of Rome is reported by many legends, which in recent times are beginning to be supplemented by more scientific reconstructions. ... The Trojan War was a war waged, according to legend, against the city of Troy in Asia Minor by the armies of the Achaeans, following the kidnapping (or elopement) of Helen of Sparta by Paris of Troy. ... A citizen of the city of Troy (Ilium) as described by Homer. ... Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Lavinium was an ancient Roman city of the Latium, said to have been named by Aeneas in honor of Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latins, and his wife, Amata. ... In Greek and Roman mythology, Ascanius was a son of Aeneas and Creusa. ... Alba Longa (in Italian sources occasionally written Albalonga) was an ancient city of Latium, founder and head of the Latin Confederation; it was destroyed by Rome around the middle of the 7th century BC. // Legendary history According to legend Alba Longa was founded by Ascanius or Iulus, son of Aeneas... Romulus and Remus, (c771 BC¹- July 5, c717 BC Romulus) (c771 BC- April 21, c753 BC Remus), the traditional founders of Rome, appeared in Roman mythology as the twin sons of the priestess Rhea Silvia, fathered by the god of war Mars. ... Mars was the Roman god of war, the son of Juno and a magical flower (or Jupiter). ... Rhea Sylvia (also written as Rea Silvia), and also known as Ilia, was the mythical mother of the twins Romulus and Remus, who founded the city of Rome. ... Centuries: 9th century BC - 8th century BC - 7th century BC Decades: 800s BC 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC - 750s BC - 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC Events and Trends 756 BC - Founding of Cyzicus. ...

Overthrow of the kings

Further information: Lucretia, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

Livy's version of the establishment of the Republic states that the last of the Kings of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ("Tarquin the proud") had a thoroughly unpleasant son, Sextus Tarquinius, who raped a Roman noblewoman named Lucretia. Lucretia compelled her family to take action by gathering her kinsmen, telling them what happened, and then killing herself. They were compelled to avenge her, and led an uprising that expelled the royal house, the Tarquins, out of Rome into refuge in Etruria. Lucretia Death of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli Lucretia is a mythical figure in the history of the Roman Republic. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... There were seven traditional Kings of Rome before the establishment of the Roman Republic. ... Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (also called Tarquin the Proud or Tarquin II) was the last of the seven legendary kings of Rome, son of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and son-in-law of Servius Tullius. ... Sextus Tarquinius was the son of the last legendary king of Rome, L. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud). ... Lucretia Death of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli Lucretia is a mythical figure in the history of the Roman Republic. ... Etruria — usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia — was an ancient country in Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium and Umbria. ...

Lucretia's widowed husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus and her brother Lucius Junius Brutus were elected as the first two consuls of the new Republic (Marcus Junius Brutus who later assassinated Gaius Julius Caesar claimed descent from this first Brutus). Lucius Iunius Brutus Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC. Prior to his election, Rome had been ruled by kings. ... Consul (abbrev. ... In a broad definition, a republic is a state whose political organization rests on the principle that the citizens or electorate constitute the ultimate root of legitimacy and sovereignty. ... Marcus Junius Brutus Caepio (85 BC – 42 BC), or simply Brutus, was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. ... Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ...

History of the Roman Republic

Further information: Timeline of ancient Rome, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The origins and early history of Rome are very uncertain. While there are quite specific accounts of Rome's origins and early history, these tend to be of a more mythological nature, and do not stand up as objective history when subjected to modern analysis. There even have been archeological findings in the city of Rome that predate the mythological founding date; on the other hand, the traces of actual settlement do not go back as far as that date. However, Roman origin myths probably do contain aspects of the truth, and were responsible for shaping the Romans' views of themselves. This is a Timeline of events concerning Ancient Rome, from the city foundation until the last attempt of the Roman Empire of the East to conquer Rome. ...

The founding of the city

See main article: Founding of Rome

The tradition supplies several different dates for the founding of Rome, of which the most well-known is that given by the Roman historian and chronographer M. Terentius Varro: 753 BC, but this depends on the extremely doubtful traditional chronology of the Roman kings. An Italian poster from World War II using the Romulus and Remus myth: the wolf is tearing apart a Union Jack to encourage Italians to buy war bonds The founding of Rome is reported by many legends, which in recent times are beginning to be supplemented by more scientific reconstructions. ... Marcus Terentius Varro ([[116 BC]–27 BC), also known as Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his contemporary Varro Atacinus, was a Roman scholar and writer, who the Romans came to call the most learned of all the Romans. ... Centuries: 9th century BC - 8th century BC - 7th century BC Decades: 800s BC 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC - 750s BC - 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC Events and Trends 756 BC - Founding of Cyzicus. ...

The actual human settlement of Rome is debatable. Rome was probably uninhabitable much before 1000 BC. There are some archaeological finds older than Varro's date; but the earliest traces of continuous settlement are usually dated to the early 600's BC.

The Monarchy (Sixth century BC)

See main article: Roman Kingdom

In the beginning, Rome had kings. The tradition portrays these kings more as culture heroes than as historical figures, each of them being credited with devising some aspect of Roman culture; for example, Numa Pompilius devised Roman religion, and Ancus Martius the arts of war. It also gives most of them reigns of about forty years, which probably owes more to numerology than to history. Other details have been seen as origin stories of various Roman noble houses. King of Rome redirects here. ... King of Rome redirects here. ... A culture hero is a historical or mythological hero who changes the world through invention or discovery. ... Numa Pompilius (April 21, 753 BC - 674 BC) succeeded Romulus as the second King of Rome. ... Religion in ancient Rome combined several different cult practices and embraced more than a single set of beliefs. ... Ancus Marcius (640 BC-616 BC.), fourth of the Kings of Rome, and possibly legendary. ... Numerology is the study of the purported mystical or esoteric relationship between numbers and the character or action of physical objects and living things. ...

There is, however, general agreement that Rome did have a series of monarchs (some of whom were of Etruscan origin; the influence of the Etruscans can still be seen on early Roman art and architecture) and that these kings were displaced by the Roman aristocracy sometime around 500-450 BC. Map showing the extent of the Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ...

The establishment of the Republic

Further information: Political institutions of Rome, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The traditional date of the revolution against the kings is 509 BC; for the story see Overthrow of the kings above. This is again open to doubt; the arrangement of the consular fasti which support this date squeezes six consuls into the first year of the Republic, and has long stretches without any consuls at all. It is possible that, as a matter of national pride, Roman historians altered the chronology of the early republic to make it appear that Rome freed itself before Cleisthenes brought freedom to Athens. It is also suspected that later powerful families "inserted" consular ancestors into the list to support the political position of their families, pushing the founding date of the republic back in time. This is a tentative list of topics regarding political institutions of Ancient Rome. ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... Fasti, a Latin word, refers to the Roman calendar and almanac; and especially, to a long, unfinished poem on the religious festivals of the Roman year and their mythological underpinnings, by the poet Ovid. ... Cleisthenes (also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was a noble Athenian of the accursed Alcmeonidate family. ... Athens (Greek: Αθήνα Athína IPA ) is the capital of Greece and one of the most famous cities in the world. ...

The early consuls took over the roles of the king with the exception of his high priesthood in the worship of Jupiter Optimus Maximus at the sacred temple on the Capitoline Hill. For that duty the Romans elected a Rex sacrorum - a "king of holy things". It is interesting to note that the Roman Rex Sacrorum was forbidden membership in the Senate; one could not be a Senator and a Rex Sacrorum at the same time. Republican Rome distanced even this vestigial "king" from any possibility of power. Until the end of the Republic, the accusation that a powerful man wanted to make himself "Rex" - "King" remained a career-shaking charge (Julius Caesar's assassins claimed that they were preserving Rome from the re-establishment of a monarchy). Look up monarch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A monarch (see sovereign) is a type of ruler or head of state. ... Jupiter et Thétis - by Jean Ingres, 1811. ... Piazza del Campidoglio, on the top of Capitoline Hill, with the façade of Palazzo Senatorio. ... A sacred king, according to the systematic interpretation of mythology developed by Sir James George Frazer in his influential book The Golden Bough, was a king who represented a solar deity in a periodically re-enacted fertility rite. ... A monarchy, (from the Greek monos, one, and archein, to rule) is a form of government that has a monarch as Head of State. ...

The conflict of the Orders

Further information: Conflict of the Orders, and Secessio plebis, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

The relationship between the plebeians and the patricians sometimes came under such strain that the plebeians would secede from the city, taking their families and movable possessions, and set up camp on a hill outside the walls. Their refusal to cooperate any longer with the patricians led to social changes. Only about 15 years after the establishment of the Republic in 494 BC, plebeians seceded and chose two leaders to whom they gave the title Tribunes. The plebeians took an oath that they would hold their leaders 'sacrosanct' - 'untouchable' during their terms of office, and that a united plebs would kill anyone who harmed a tribune. The second secession in 471 BC led to further legal definition of their rights and duties and increased the number of tribunes to 10. The final secession ended in 287 BC and the resulting Lex Hortensia gave the vote of the Concilium Plebis or "Council of the Plebeians" the force of law. It is important to note that this force of law was binding for both patricians and plebeians, and in fact made the Council of the Plebeians a leading body for approving Roman laws. The Conflict of the Orders was a political struggle between the plebeians (plebs) and patricians (patricii) of the ancient Roman Republic, in which the plebeians sought political equality and achieved it in 287 BC, after two centuries of strife. ... Secessio plebis was an informal exercise of power by Romes plebian citizens, similar to a strike. ... Secessio plebis was an informal exercise of power by Romes plebian citizens, similar to a strike. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC Years: 499 BC 498 BC 497 BC 496 BC 495 BC - 494 BC - 493 BC 492 BC... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 5th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC 490s BC 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 476 BC 475 BC 474 BC 473 BC 472 BC - 471 BC - 470 BC 469 BC 468... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC Years: 292 BC 291 BC 290 BC 289 BC 288 BC - 287 BC - 286 BC 285 BC... In Roman law, Lex Hortensia (287 BCE) was the final result of the long class struggle between patricians and plebeians. ... This is an attempted alphabetical List of Roman laws. ...

Roman expansion into Italy (340 to 268 BC)

Further information: Samnite Wars, and Latin War, and Pyrrhic War, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

Throughout the 4th century BC the Romans fought a series of wars with their neighbors, most notably the Sabines and the Samnites, who were their main rivals on the Italian mainland. Eventually, Rome came to dominate the Latin League, a coalition of city-states in the area of Latium, eventually dissolving the league and placing the territory under hegemonic control at the end of the Latin War. The Samnite Wars were three wars between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium. ... The Latin War (340-338 BC) was a conflict between the Roman Republic and its neighbors the Latin peoples of ancient Italy. ... Combatants Roman republic Magna Graecia, Epirus Commanders Publius Valerius Laevinus, Publius Decius Mus Pyrrhus of Epirus Strength {{{strength1}}} {{{strength2}}} Casualties {{{casualties1}}} {{{casualties2}}} {{{notes}}} The Pyrrhic War was a war between Pyrrhus of Epirus and Rome that lasted from 280 BC to 275 BC. It was an important precursor to the... Sabine (in Latin and in Italian, Sabina) is a sub-region of Latium, Italy, on the North-East of Rome toward Rieti. ... Samnite warriors Samnium (Oscan Safinim) was a region of the southern Apennines in Italy that was home to the Samnites, a group of Sabellic tribes that controlled the area from about 600 BC to about 290 BC. Samnium was delimited by Latium in the north, by Lucania in the south... The Latin League was an alliance of Rome and the many other cities and villages in and around the area of Latium. ... Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. ... Hegemony is the dominance of one group over other groups, with or without the threat of force, to the extent that, for instance, the dominant party can dictate the terms of trade to its advantage; or more broadly, that cultural perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. ... The Latin War (340-338 BC) was a conflict between the Roman Republic and its neighbors the Latin peoples of ancient Italy. ...

During this era, Rome, and others of the Latin League, clashed with foreign powers as well, and not always successfully. In 390 BC the Gauls from Gallia Cisalpina (modern Po Valley) under the leadership of Brennus, defeated the Roman legions and sacked Rome itself, requiring a huge ransom to avoid completely destroying the city (A Roman senator protested that the weights used to measure the ransom of gold were inaccurate. In response, Brennus threw his sword onto the weights and uttered the famous words: "Vae Victis" - "Woe to the vanquished"). In 283 BC Pyrrhus of Epirus arrived to aid the Greek colony of Tarentum against the Romans. Pyrrhus was widely considered the greatest military leader since Alexander the Great, but even after winning three battles he was unable to defeat the Roman Republic, taking great losses as he did so. Pyrrhus is said to have uttered the phrase: "Another such victory and I shall be lost" coining the term "Pyrrhic victory". Pyrrhus withdrew to fight wars in Sicily and Greece, giving the Romans international military prestige, and bringing them to the attention of the Hellenistic superpowers of the East. The Latin League was an alliance of Rome and the many other cities and villages in and around the area of Latium. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC - 390s BC - 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 395 BC 394 BC 393 BC 392 BC 391 BC - 390 BC - 389 BC 388 BC 387... Gallia (in English Gaul) is the Latin name for the region of western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Province of the Roman Republic, in modern-day northern Italy. ... A sculpture depicting the Brennus who led the attack on Rome that adorned an 18th or 19th century French naval vessel Brennus is the name of two Celtic chieftains famous in ancient history: 1. ... Vae victis is Latin for Woe to the conquered. In 390 BC, an army of Gauls led by Brennus attacked Rome, capturing all of the city except for the Capitoline Hill, which was successfully held against them. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC - 280s BC - 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 288 BC 287 BC 286 BC 285 BC 284 BC 283 BC 282 BC 281 BC 280... Pyrrhus (312-272 BC) (Greek: Πυρρος - the color of fire, red-blonde, Latin Pyrrhus), king of the Molossians (from ca. ... Map of Italy showing Taranto in the bottom right Taranto is a coastal city in Apulia, southern Italy. ... Alexander the Great (in Greek , transliterated Megas Alexandros) (Alexander III of Macedon) was born in Pella, Macedon, in July, 356 BC, died in Babylon, on June 10, 323 BC, King of Macedon 336–323 BC, is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history (if not the... A Pyrrhic victory (pronounced pirric) is a victory which is won at too great a cost for the victor. ... The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance...

Through its colonies, and allied city-states, Rome had a vast amount of manpower to draw upon, which it used as a recruitment pool for its Legions. This gave it the ability to simply raise legion after legion, continuing to fight where other nations may simply have capitulated. Rome also demonstrated an unwillingness to be, or to stay, beaten. This characteristic determinism was shown in such later engagements such as First Punic War where the Roman military, faced with a 70% loss of its fleet due to storms, managed to rebuild the entire fleet in a mere two months. The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ...

Another unique characteristic of the Republic was its treatment of conquered people. Those conquered by Rome were brought under the "protection" of Rome; they were granted a form of citizenship, and had specific rights under Roman law. They were also held to certain obligations as well, most notably the requirement to provide troops for the Legions. This had a two-fold effect. First, Rome had a large pool of manpower to draw its Legions from (the entire Latin League). This allowed it to simply field army after army, refusing to be defeated. Secondly, by having several levels of citizenship and rights under Roman law, the attention of conquered people was focused on improving their rights within the Roman law, and in competing with rival client-states for status within the Roman sphere of influence, rather than trying to rid themselves of Roman dominance. This policy of "divide and rule" made conquered people willing participants in their own submission to Roman law. The Latin League was an alliance of Rome and the many other cities and villages in and around the area of Latium. ... In politics and sociology, divide and rule (also known as divide and conquer) is a strategy of gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into chunks that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. ...

By 268 BC the Romans dominated most of Italy through a network of allies, conquered city-states, colonies, and strategic garrisons. At that time Rome started to look beyond Italy, towards the islands and the rich trade of the Mediterranean Sea. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 273 BC 272 BC 271 BC 270 BC 269 BC 268 BC - 267 BC 266 BC 265... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ...

Conquest of the West: The Punic Wars

In 264 BC, Carthage was a Phoenician colony on the coast of modern Tunisia. It was a powerful city-state with a large commercial empire, and, with the exception of Rome, the strongest power in the western Mediterranean. While Carthage's navies were uncontested, it did not maintain a strong standing army. Instead, it relied on mercenaries, hired with its considerable wealth, to fight its wars for it. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... The Third Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Rome from 149 BC to 146 BC. It was the third of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... Mercenary (disambiguation). ...

As soon as Rome had consolidated its control in Italy, it came into conflict with Carthage as Rome attempted to expand its influence into the Mediterranean. Rome and Carthage would fight a series of three Punic Wars ('Punic' is Latin for 'Phoenician') between 264 and 146 BC. The Roman victories over Carthage in these wars made Rome the most powerful nation in Europe and the Mediterranean, a status it would retain until the division of the Roman Empire into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire by Diocletian in 286 AD. A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Emperor Diocletian. ...

The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC)

Hannibal's route of invasion during the Second Punic War, given graciously by The Department of History, United States Military Academy

The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage began as a local conflict in Sicily between Hiero II of Syracuse, and the Mamertines of Messina. The Mamertines had the bad judgement to enlist the aid of the Carthaginian navy, and then betray the Carthaginians by entreating the Roman Senate for aid against Carthage. The Romans sent a garrison to secure Messina, and the outraged Carthaginians then lent aid to Syracuse. With the two local powers now embroiled in a local conflict, local tensions quickly escalated into a full-scale war between Carthage and Rome for the control of Sicily. The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ... The battle of Agrigentum (Sicily, 261 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Boodes Hannibal Gisco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina Strength About 20 ships About 17 ships Casualties Unknown Fleet captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara (Lipara harbour, 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought... The battle of Mylae (offshore Mylae Sicily, 260 BC) was the first real naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought during the First Punic War. ... The Battle of Sulci was a naval battle fought in 258 BC between the Roman and Carthagenian navys of the coast near the town of Sulci. ... The Battle of Tyndaris is a naval battle of the First Punic War, which took place off Tyndaris (modern Tindari) in 257 BC. Tyndaris was a Sicilian town founded as a Greek colony in 396 BC located on the high ground overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea in the Gulf of Patti. ... Battle of Cape Ecnomus Conflict First Punic War Date 256 BC Place Offshore Cape Ecnomus, in Sicily Result Roman victory The battle of Cape Ecnomus (offshore Cape Ecnomus, southern coast of Sicily, 256 BC) was a naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought during the... The Battle of Adys was fought in 256 BC between Carthaginians and a Roman army led by Marcus Atilius Regulus. ... The Battle of Panormus was fought in 251 BC between Romans led by L. Caecilius Metellus and Carthaginians led by Hasdrubal. ... Battle of Drepana Conflict First Punic War Date 249 BC Place Offshore Drepana, in Sicily Result Carthaginian victory The battle of Drepana or Drepanum (offshore modern Trapani, western coast of Sicily, 249 BC) was the a naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought during the... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Gaius Lutatius Catulus Hanno the Great Strength About 200 ships About 250 ships Casualties 30 ships sunk 50 ships sunk 70 ships captured The Battle of the Aegates Islands or Aegusa (Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of the island of Sicily, 10 March 241... Image File history File links Hannibal_route_of_invasion. ... Image File history File links Hannibal_route_of_invasion. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ... Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. ... Grave monument of Hiëro II in Syracuse Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 215 BC, was the illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. ... The Mamertines (Mamertini sons of Mars) were mercenaries of Italian origin who had been hired from their home in Campania by Agathocles, the king of Syracuse. ... Location within Italy Messina with a population of about 260,000 is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, Italy and the capital of the province of Messina. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ...

The first Punic war was mostly a naval war. After a sound defeat at the land battle of Agrigentum, the Carthaginian leadership resolved to avoid direct land-based engagements with the Roman legions, and concentrated on the sea. The battle of Agrigentum (Sicily, 261 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome. ...

Initially, an experienced Carthaginian navy prevailed against an amateur Roman Navy (see: Battle of the Lipari Islands). Rome responded by drastically expanding its navy (there is some dispute whether or not it did so by copying storm-beached and captured Carthaginian warships): within two months the Romans had a fleet of over 100 warships. Because they knew that they could not outsail the Carthaginians, the Romans added an "assault bridge" to Roman ships, known as corvus - the "Raven". This bridge would latch onto enemy vessels, bring them to a standstill, and allow Roman legionaries to board and capture Carthaginian ships with ease. This tactic stripped the Carthaginian navy of its advantage (superiority in ship-to-ship engagement), and allowed Rome's superior infantry to be brought to bear in naval conflicts. However, the corvus was also cumbersome and dangerous, and was eventually phased out as the Roman navy became more experienced and tactically proficient. The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis) operated between the First Punic war and the end of the Western Roman Empire. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Boodes Hannibal Gisco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina Strength About 20 ships About 17 ships Casualties Unknown Fleet captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara (Lipara harbour, 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought... A corvus (meaning raven in Latin) was a Roman military boarding device used in naval warfare during the First Punic War against Carthage. ... A Legionary is a member of a legion. ...

Save for the disastrous defeat at the battle of Tunis in Africa, and the naval engaments of Lipari Islands and Drepana, the first Punic war was mostly an unbroken string of Roman victories. In 241 BC, Carthage signed a peace treaty giving Rome the total control of Sicily. The Battle of Tunis between the Roman Republic and Carthage occurred in 256 BC during the First Punic War. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Boodes Hannibal Gisco Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina Strength About 20 ships About 17 ships Casualties Unknown Fleet captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara (Lipara harbour, 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought... Battle of Drepana Conflict First Punic War Date 249 BC Place Offshore Drepana, in Sicily Result Carthaginian victory The battle of Drepana or Drepanum (offshore modern Trapani, western coast of Sicily, 249 BC) was the a naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, fought during the... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC - 241 BC - 240 BC 239 BC 238...

In 238 BC the mercenary troops of Carthage revolted (see Mercenary War) and Rome took the opportunity to seize the islands of Corsica and Sardinia away from Carthage as well. From that point on, the Romans used the term "Mare Nostrum" - "our sea" and effectively controlled the Mediterranean. Rome's navies could prevent amphibious invasion upon Italy, control the important and rich sea trade routes, and invade other shores. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 243 BC 242 BC 241 BC 240 BC 239 BC - 238 BC - 237 BC 236 BC... The Mercenary War was a uprising of mercenaries in the employ of Carthage in the 3rd century BC. The revolt was a consequence of delays in payment following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. ... Capital Ajaccio Land area¹ 8,680 km² Regional President ² Ange Santini (UMP) (since 2004) Population  - Jan. ... Sardinia (Sardegna in Italian, Sardigna, Sardinna or Sardinnia in the Sardinian language, Sardenya in Catalan), is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily is the largest), between Italy, Spain and Tunisia, south of Corsica. ... This article is about the 2003 board game. ...

The Second Punic War (218 to 202 BC)

Carthage spent the following years improving its finances and expanded its colonial empire in Hispania (modern Spain), under the Barcid family, while Rome's attention was mostly concentrated on the Illyrian Wars. However, the Barcid family had not forgotten the defeats of the first Punic war, and its most famous member Hannibal Barca, swore a sacred oath never to be a friend to Rome. In 221 BC Hannibal attacked Saguntum in Spain, a city allied to Rome, beginning the Second Punic War. The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... The Battle of Ticinus (also Tichino or Techino) a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio in November 218 BC. It was the first battle to take place on Italian soil. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Titus Sempronius Longus Strength 26,000 45,000 Casualties Unknown, but low 20,000 {{{notes}}} The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was a major battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Roman Republic in 218... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Gaius Flaminius † Strength about 60,000 soldiers about 25,000 soldiers Casualties virtually none about 15,000 {{{notes}}} The Battle of Lake Trasimene (June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Lucius Aemilius Paullus† Gaius Terentius Varro Strength 30,000 heavy infantry 6,000 light infantry 8,000 cavalry 86,400—87,000 men (sixteen Roman and Allied Legions) Casualties About 16,700 killed and wounded Perhaps 50,000-60,000 killed, 10,000 captured... The First Battle of Nola was fought in 216 BC between the forces of Hannibal and a Roman force led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... The Second Battle of Nola was fought in 215 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman Army under Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... The Third Battle of Nola was fought in 214 BC between Hannibal and Roman army led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... The First Battle of Capua was fought in 212 BC between Hannibal and a Roman army. ... The Battle of the Silarus was fought in 212 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman force led by Praetor M. Centenius Penula. ... The first Battle of Herdonia was fought in 212 BC between Hannibals Carthaginian army and Roman forces led by Praetor Gnaeus Fulvius. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hasdrubal Publius Cornelius Scipio† Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus† Strength Casualties The Battle of the Upper Baetis was fought in 211 BC between a Carthaginian force led by Hasdrubal (Hannibals brother) and Roman force led by Publius Cornelius Scipio and his brother Gnaeus. ... The Second Battle of Capua was fought in 211 BC when the Romans besieged Capua. ... The Second Battle of Herdonia of the Second Punic War, was fought in 210 BC between Hannibals army and the Roman forces of Fulvius Centumalus. ... The Battle of Numistro was fought in 210 BC between Hannibals army and a Roman army led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. ... The Battle of Asculum was fought in 209 BC between Hannibals Carthaginian army, and a Roman force. ... The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Spain during the Second Punic War, in which he routed the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Barca. ... The Battle of Grumentum was fought in 207 BC between Romans led by Gaius Claudius Nero, and Hannibals Carthaginian army. ... The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the ancient conflict between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River in Italy. ... The Battle of Ilipa was a battle of the Second Punic War. ... The Battle of Crotona was fought in 204 BC between Hannibals Carthaginian army, and a Roman force led by Sempronius. ... The Battle of Bagbrades (also known as Campi Magni, Great Plains) was fought in 203 BC between a combined Carthaginian and Numidian force, and the Roman army of Scipio Africanus. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Allies Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Major Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 20,000 heavy infantry 14,000 light infantry 2,700 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 31,000 killed and wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ... The Barcid family was a leading family in the ancient city of Carthage and many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. ... In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC and 219 BC, Rome overran the Illyrian settlements in the Neretva river valley and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe. ... Hannibal Barca Hannibal Barca (247 BC – 182 BC) was a military commander of ancient Carthage, best known for his achievements in the Second Punic War in marching an army from Spain over the Pyrenees and the Alps into northern Italy and defeating the Romans at the Battles of the river... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC - 220s BC - 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 226 BC 225 BC 224 BC 223 BC 222 BC - 221 BC - 220 BC 219 BC... Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ...

Hannibal's feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: a fresco detail, ca. 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome

Hannibal was a master strategist who knew that the Roman cavalry was, as a rule, weak and vulnerable and therefore enlisted superior Numidian light cavalry along with Gallic and Hispanic heavy cavalry into his armies, with devastating effect on the Roman legions. Image File history File links HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510. ... Image File history File links HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510. ... 1510 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Michelangelos design for Capitoline Hill, now home to the Capitoline Museums. ... City motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR (The Senate and the People of Rome) Founded 21 April 753 BC mythical, 1st millennium BC Region Latium Mayor Walter Veltroni (Left-Wing Democrats) Area  - City Proper  1285 km² Population  - City (2004)  - Metropolitan  - Density (city proper) 2,553,873 almost 4,300,000 1. ...

There were three major military theaters in this war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly; Spain, where Hasdrubal Barca, a younger brother of Hannibal, defended the Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until eventually retreating into Italy; and Sicily where the Romans held military supremacy. Theater in military terms, is a geographic location used for military operations. ... Hasdrubal was the name of several Carthaginian generals, among whom the following are the most important: 1. ...

After assaulting Saguntum, Hannibal surprised the Romans, by directly invading Italy, leading a large army of mercenaries composed mainly of Gauls, Hispanics, Numidians, and most famously a dozen African war elephants, through the Alps. Hannibal's forces defeated the Roman legions in several major engagements, most famously at the Battle of Cannae, but his long-term strategy failed. Lacking siege engines and sufficient numbers to take the city of Rome itself, he had planned to turn the Italian allies against Rome and starve the city out. However, with the exception of a few of the southern city-states, the majority of the Roman allies remained loyal and continued to fight alongside Rome, despite Hannibal's near-invincible army devastating the Italian countryside. Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ... Indian war elephant, relief at Mathura, 2nd century BC War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. ... The West face of the Petit Dru above the Chamonix valley near the Mer de Glace. ... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Lucius Aemilius Paullus† Gaius Terentius Varro Strength 30,000 heavy infantry 6,000 light infantry 8,000 cavalry 86,400—87,000 men (sixteen Roman and Allied Legions) Casualties About 16,700 killed and wounded Perhaps 50,000-60,000 killed, 10,000 captured...

More importantly, Hannibal never received any significant reinforcements from Carthage, despite his many pleas. This lack of reinforcements prevented Hannibal from decisively ending the conflict by conquering Rome through force of arms.

Rome, on the other hand, was also incapable of bringing the conflict in the Italian theater to a decisive close. Not only were they contending with Hannibal in Italy, and his brother in Spain, but Rome had embroiled itself in yet another foreign war, and was fighting the first of its Macedonian wars at the same time. The First Macedonian War (215 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. ...

With Hannibal lacking decisive force from Carthage, and the Roman military spread over three separate theatres of conflict, Hannibal's Italian war carried on inconclusively for sixteen years.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus

In Spain, a young Roman commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio (later to be given the cognomen Africanus because of his feats during this war), eventually defeated the Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal. Abandoning Spain, Hasdrubal attempted to bring his mercenary army into Italy to reinforce Hannibal, but was utterly defeated and killed at the decisive Battle of the Metaurus before he could do so. Scipio captured the local Carthaginian cities, made several alliances with local rulers, and then invaded Africa itself. Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ... Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS) (236 - 183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... The cognomen (name known by in English) was originally the third name of a Roman in the Roman naming convention. ... Africanus is a cognomen of ancient Rome associated with the gens Scipio, especially Scipio Major and his grandson (by adoption) Scipio Minor, who were major players in the Punic Wars against Carthage. ... The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the ancient conflict between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River in Italy. ...

With Carthage now directly threatened, Hannibal returned to Africa to face Scipio, but at the final Battle of Zama in 202 BC the Romans finally defeated Hannibal. Carthage sued for peace, and Rome agreed, first stripping Carthage of its foreign colonies, forcing it to pay a huge indemnity, and forbidding it to own either an army or a significant navy again. Hannibal took a leadership role in rebuilding Carthage, and succeeded so well that his envious rivals and a vengeful Rome forced him to flee to Asia Minor in 195 BC, where he served several local kings as a military adviser until he committed suicide in 183 BC to avoid his capture by Roman agents. Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Allies Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Major Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 20,000 heavy infantry 14,000 light infantry 2,700 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 31,000 killed and wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC - 195 BC - 194 BC 193 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC 185 BC 184 BC - 183 BC - 182 BC 181 BC...

The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC)

Main article: Third Punic War

Rome now concentrated its attention on its ongoing Macedonian wars, and into pacifying its newly acquired territory in Hispania. The Third Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Rome from 149 BC to 146 BC. It was the third of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic. ... The Macedonian Wars were a series of four wars between ancient Rome, its allies, and Macedon. ... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ...

Carthage, however, was reduced to a single city-state, with no military, under huge financial debt, and dependent on Rome for military protection and arbitration of international matters. With no military, Carthage suffered raids from its neighbour Numidia, and under the terms of the Roman treaty, such disputes were arbitrated by the Roman Senate. As Numidia was a favored "client state" of Rome, Roman rulings were slanted heavily in Numidian favor. Numidia was an ancient African Berber kingdom and later a Roman province on the northern coast of Africa between the province of Africa (where Tunisia is now) and the province of Mauretania (which is now the western part of Algerias coastal area). ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ...

After some fifty years of this condition, Carthage managed to discharge its war indemnity, and considered itself no longer bound by the restrictions of the treaty, although Rome believed otherwise. It mustered an army to repel Numidian forces, and immediately lost a war with Numidia, placing themselves in further debt, this time to Numidia.

This new-found Punic militarism alarmed many Romans, including Cato the Elder who after a voyage to Carthage, ended all his speeches by saying: "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam." - "I also think that Carthage must be destroyed". Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO¹) (234 BC, Tusculum — 149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed The Censor, Sapiens, Priscus, or Major (the Elder), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ...

In 149 BC, in an attempt to pacify Carthage, Rome made a series of escalating demands, ending with the near-impossible demand that the city be demolished and re-founded away from the coast, deeper into Africa. The Carthaginians refused this last demand and Rome declared the Third Punic War. Scipio Aemilianus besieged the city for three years before he breached the walls, sacked the city, and burned Carthage to the ground. According to legend, the Romans went so far as to sow salt into the earth so that nothing might ever be grown there. This is highly unlikely, considering the high price salt commanded in those times, and is most likely only a legend. The surviving Carthaginians were sold into slavery, and Carthage ceased to exist, until Octavian would rebuild the city as a Roman veterans' colony, over a century later. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC - 149 BC - 148 BC 147 BC... The Third Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Rome from 149 BC to 146 BC. It was the third of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic. ... Storybook illustration depicting Scipio as the reluctant servant of the Senate as he orchestrated the genocide of the Carthaginians. ... A magnified crystal of a salt (halite/sodium chloride) In chemistry, a salt is any ionic compound composed of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions, so that the product is neutral and without a net charge. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ...

Conquest of the East: the Macedonian and Seleucid wars

The Macedonian and Seleucid wars were a series of conflicts fought by Rome during and after the second Punic war, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Aegean. Along with the Punic wars, they resulted in Roman control or influence over the entire Mediterranean basin. The Macedonian Wars were a series of four wars between ancient Rome, its allies, and Macedon. ... The First Macedonian War (215 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. ... The Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC) was fought between Rome, allied with Pergamum and Rhodes, and Philip V of Macedon. ... The Third Macedonian War (171 BC - 168 BC) was a war fought between Rome and King Perseus of Macedon. ... The Fourth Macedonian War (150 BC - 148 BC) was the final war between Rome and Macedon. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... Greece and the Aegean Sea The Aegean sea in Greece as seen from the island of Greek: Αιγαίον Πέλαγος, Aigaion Pelagos; Turkish: Ege denizi) is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, located between the Greek peninsula and Anatolia (Asia Minor, now part of Turkey). ... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ...

The first Macedonian war (215 to 202 BC)

During the Second Punic War, Philip V of Macedon allied himself with Hannibal. Fearing possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedon, Rome dispatched forces across the Adriatic. Roman legions (aided by allies from the Aetolian League and Pergamon after 211 BC) did little more than skirmish with Macedonian forces and seize minor territory along the Adriatic coastline in order to "combat piracy". Rome's interest was not in conquest, but in keeping Macedon, the Greek city-states, and political leagues carefully divided and non-threatening. The war ended indecisively in 202 BC with the Treaty of Phoenice. While a minor conflict, it opened the way for Roman military intervention in Greece. The First Macedonian War (215 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. ... Combatants Macedon Aetolia, Rome, Pergamum Commanders Philip V of Macedon Phyrrhias Strength Casualties heavy The First Battle of Lamia was fought in 209 BC between the forces of Philip V of Macedon and the Aetolians led by Phyrrhias. ... Combatants Macedon Aetolia, Rome, Pergamum Commanders Philip V of Macedon Phyrrhias Strength Casualties heavy The Second Battle of Lamia was fought in 209 BC between the forces of Philip V of Macedon and Phyrrhias, a general from Aetolia. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... Coin of Philip V of Macedon (r. ... The Vergina Sun, a symbol associated with the Macedonian kingdom Macedon or Macedonia (from Greek ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom located in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordering the kingdom of Epirus on the west and the region... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... The Aetolian League was a confederation in ancient Greece centering on the cities of Aetolia in central Greece. ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 216 BC 215 BC 214 BC 213 BC 212 BC - 211 BC - 210 BC 209 BC... The Adriatic Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating the Apennine peninsula (Italy) from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... The Treaty of Phoenice, a treaty endding the First Macedonian War and drawn up at Phoenice, in 205 BC. This article is a stub. ...

The second Macedonian war (200 to 196 BC)

In 201 BC, ambassadors from Pergamon and Rhodes brought evidence before the Roman Senate that Philip V of Macedon and Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire had signed a non-aggression pact. Although some scholars view this "secret treaty" as a fabrication by Pergamon and Rhodes, it resulted in Rome launching the second Macedonian war, with aid from its Greek allies. It was an indecisive conflict until the Roman victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC. After Rome imposed the Treaty of Tempea, Philip V was forbidden to interfere with affairs outside his borders, a condition he adhered to for the rest of his life. In 194 BC Rome declared Greece "free", and withdrew completely from the Balkans. It seemed that Rome had no further interest in the region. The Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC) was fought between Rome, allied with Pergamum and Rhodes, and Philip V of Macedon. ... For the earlier battle fought here, see Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC). ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282... Rhodes, Greek Ρόδος (pron. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... Coin of Philip V of Macedon (r. ... The Vergina Sun, a symbol associated with the Macedonian kingdom Macedon or Macedonia (from Greek ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom located in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordering the kingdom of Epirus on the west and the region... Antiochus III the Great, (c. ... The Seleucid Empire was one of several political states founded after the death of Alexander the Great, whose generals squabbled over the division of Alexanders empire. ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282... Rhodes, Greek Ρόδος (pron. ... For the earlier battle fought here, see Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC). ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 202 BC 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC - 197 BC - 196 BC 195 BC... The Treaty of Tempea put the end of the Second Macedonian War (200 BC – 196 BC) between the Roman republic and Philip V of Macedon. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC - 194 BC - 193 BC 192 BC...

The Seleucid War (192 to 188 BC)

Following the second Macedonian war, the Aetolian League was unhappy with the amount of territory ceded to them by Rome as "reward" for their aid. In response, they "invited" Antiochus III of Seleucid Syria to assist them in freeing Greece from "Roman oppression". Antiochus sent a small force into Greece in 192 BC, and Rome responded by sending its legions back into Greece, driving out the Seleucids. Antiochus III the Great, (c. ... The Battle of Thermopylae was fought in 191 BC between a Roman army led by Manius Acilius Glabrio and a Seleucid force led by Antiochus III the Great. ... The Battle of the Eurymedon was fought in 190 BC between Roman forces and a Seleucid fleet. ... The Battle of Myonessus was fought in 190 BC between a Macedonian fleet and a Roman fleet. ... The Battle of Magnesia was fought in 190 BC near Magnesia ad Sipylum, between the Romans and their ally Eumenes of Pergamum against the army of Antiochus III the Great of Syria resulting in a Roman victory. ... The Aetolian League was a confederation in ancient Greece centering on the cities of Aetolia in central Greece. ... Antiochus III the Great, (c. ... The Seleucid Empire was one of several political states founded after the death of Alexander the Great, whose generals squabbled over the division of Alexanders empire. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC - 192 BC - 191 BC 190 BC...

Possibly partly because Antiochus had given Hannibal shelter as his military advisor (Hannibal had urged the king not to enter Greece with so few troops and been ignored), Rome sent a force of 30,000 troops under Scipio Africanus into Asia Minor. Roman victories at Thermopylae (191 BC) and the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC), forced Antiochus to sign the Treaty of Apamia (188 BC), ceding Seleucid territory to Rome and Pergamon, and extracting a war indemnity of 15,000 talents of silver. For other uses, see Hannibal (disambiguation). ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ... Thermopylae (Ancient & Katharevousa Greek Θερμοπύλαι, Demotic Θερμοπύλες) is a mountain pass in Greece. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC - 191 BC - 190 BC 189 BC... The Battle of Magnesia was fought in 190 BC near Magnesia ad Sipylum, between the Romans and their ally Eumenes of Pergamum against the army of Antiochus III the Great of Syria resulting in a Roman victory. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC - 190 BC - 189 BC 188 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC 189 BC - 188 BC - 187 BC 186 BC... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282... A talent is an ancient unit of mass. ...

The third Macedonian War (172 to 168 BC)

Upon Philip's death in Macedon (179 BC), his son, Perseus of Macedon, attempted to restore Macedon's international influence, and moved aggressively against his neighbors. When Perseus was implicated in an assassination plot against an ally of Rome, the Senate declared the third Macedonian War. Initially, Rome did not fare well against the Macedonian forces, but in 168 BC, Roman legions smashed the Macedonian phalanx at the Battle of Pydna. Perseus was later captured and the kingdom of Macedon divided into four puppet republics. The Third Macedonian War (171 BC - 168 BC) was a war fought between Rome and King Perseus of Macedon. ... The Battle of Callicinus was fought in 171 BC between Macedon and Rome. ... Combatants Macedon Roman Republic Commanders Perseus of Macedon Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus Strength 44,000 38,000 Casualties 25,000 killed and wounded unknown {{{notes}}} The Battle of Pydna in 168 BC between Rome and the Antigonid dynasty represents the start of the true power of Rome, and the end... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC - 170s BC - 150s BC140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 184 BC 183 BC 182 BC 181 BC 180 BC - 179 BC - 178 BC 177 BC 176... Coin of Perseus of Macedon Perseus was the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled the successor state in Macedon created upon the death of Alexander the Great. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC - 160s BC - 150s BC140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 173 BC 172 BC 171 BC 170 BC 169 BC - 168 BC - 167 BC 166 BC 165... The Macedonian phalanx is an infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Persian Empire and other armies. ... Combatants Macedon Roman Republic Commanders Perseus of Macedon Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus Strength 44,000 38,000 Casualties 25,000 killed and wounded unknown {{{notes}}} The Battle of Pydna in 168 BC between Rome and the Antigonid dynasty represents the start of the true power of Rome, and the end...

The fourth Macedonian War (150 to 148 BC)

For several years Greece was peaceful, until a popular uprising in Macedon rose up under Andriscus, who claimed to be a son of Perseus. Rome once again dispatched its legions into Greece, and put down the rebellion. This time, Rome did not withdraw from the region, forming the Roman provinces of Achaea, Epirus and Macedonia, establishing a permanent Roman foothold on the Greek peninsula. The Fourth Macedonian War (150 BC - 148 BC) was the final war between Rome and Macedon. ... The Battle of Pydna was fought in 148 BC between Rome and the forces of the Macedonian leader Andriscus. ... Andriscus, (also spelt Andriskos) often called the pseudo-Philip, a fuller of Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, last king of Macedonia. ... The Roman Empire 120 CE, the province of Achaea highlighted. ... This article is about the broad geographical and historical region of Epirus, spanning Greece and Albania. ...

In response, the remaining free Greek powers of the Achaean League, rose up against Roman presence in Greece. The League was swiftly defeated, and, as an object lesson, Rome utterly destroyed the ancient city of Corinth in 146 BC, the same year that Carthage was destroyed. The Achaean League was a confederation of Greek city states in Achaea, a territory on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. ... Temple of Apollo at Corinth Corinth, or Korinth (Κόρινθος; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC 148 BC 147 BC - 146 BC - 145 BC 144 BC... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ...

The Macedonian wars had come to an end, along with Greek independence.

The acquisition of Asia

The growth of Roman political power in Asia Minor

In 133 BC, a dying King Attalus III of Pergamon willed his entire kingdom to the Roman Republic to avoid dynastic disputes amongst his heirs, and to avoid the possibility that Rome would take the opportunity to seize Pergamon by force. Events were complicated by the rebellion of Aristonicus, a relative of Attalus III who was proclaimed king of Pergamon with the title of Eumenes III. After four years of war (133–129 BC) he was defeated and captured by Rome. Pergamon was reorganized into the foundation of the province of Asia, and became one of the most wealthy provinces the Romans ever controlled. Because of the vast wealth of Asia, the province attracted the corrupt and greedy among the Senate, and its Governors were notorious for nearly a century after its acquisition. Download high resolution version (1055x1772, 336 KB)Asia Minor - Growth of Roman Power (337K) The Growth of Roman Power in Asia Minor. ... Download high resolution version (1055x1772, 336 KB)Asia Minor - Growth of Roman Power (337K) The Growth of Roman Power in Asia Minor. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC - 133 BC - 132 BC 131 BC... Attalus III was the last Attalid king of Pergamum, ruling from 138 BC to 133 BC. He succeeded Attalus II, although their relationship, if any, is unknown. ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282... Eumenes III (Aristonikos) was the pretender to the throne of Pergamon. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC - 133 BC - 132 BC 131 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC - 120s BC - 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC Years: 134 BC 133 BC 132 BC 131 BC 130 BC - 129 BC - 128 BC 127 BC... Roman conquest of Asia minor The Roman province of Asia was the administrative unit added to the late Republic, a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul who was an ex-consul, an honor granted only to Asia and the other rich province of Africa. ...

This sudden windfall had unforeseen, and perhaps unfortunate, consequences for the political situation in Rome, and the political reform movement of the Gracchi.

The beginning of the end

Economic and Political strife in Rome

Rome's military and diplomatic successes around the Mediterranean resulted in unforeseen economic and political pressures on the state. While factional strife had always been part of Roman political life, the stakes were now far higher; a corrupt provincial governor could acquire unbelievable wealth; a successful military commander needed only the support of his legions to rule vast territories.

Starting with the Punic Wars, the Roman economy began to change, concentrating wealth in the hands of a few powerful clans and causing political tension within Rome.

Much of the newly conquered territories were seized by rich and powerful families. Additionally, as only men who could provide their own arms were eligible to serve in the Legions, the majority of Roman troops came from the middle class land holders who theoretically would be fighting to defend their own lands. With military campaigns now lasting years rather than just a few months, soldiers could not return to work their farms. With their holdings lying fallow, their families quickly fell into debt, and their lands were lost to debtors - typically wealthy landholders who consolidated these properties into vast latifundia. Formerly middle-class soldiers would return from years of campaigning to find themselves landless, unable to support their families, and ironically, unemployable because the successes of the Legions made slaves a much cheaper source of labor. The latifundia [Latin lātifundium: lātus, spacious + fundus, farm, estate] of Roman history were great landed estates, specialising in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil or wine. ...

By 133 BC the economic imbalance was too acute to ignore, but the wealthy patricians and old families in the Senate had a vested interest in preserving the status quo. It seemed that a land reform through the traditional channels was an unlikely prospect. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC - 133 BC - 132 BC 131 BC...

The Gracchi reforms (133 to 121 BC)

Main article: Tiberius Gracchus

In 133 BC, a tribune, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, tried to introduce land reform to redistribute "publicly held land" to the now landless returning soldiers. He proposed the enforcement of a Roman law, which had mostly been ignored, which limited the use of public lands. While "public lands" were technically state owned, such land was often used by wealthy landholders, many of them Senators. Under the enforcement of this law many of them would lose property. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (163 BC-132 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. As a plebeian tribune, he caused political turmoil in the Republic by his attempts to legislate agrarian reforms. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC - 133 BC - 132 BC 131 BC... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (163 BC-132 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. As a plebeian tribune, he caused political turmoil in the Republic by his attempts to legislate agrarian reforms. ...

As it seemed unlikely that the Senate would agree to enforce the law, Tiberius bypassed the Senate entirely, and tried to pass his reform through the Plebeian Assembly as a plebiscite, using the legal principle of Lex Hortensia. While technically legal, this was a violation of political custom, and outraged many patricians. The Senate blocked Tiberius by bribing his fellow tribune to veto the bill. Tiberius then passed a bill to depose his colleague from office, violating the principle of collegiality. With the veto withdrawn, the land reform passed. An incensed Senate refused to fund the land commission. Tiberius used the plebeian assembly to divert funds from the income of Pergamon to fund the commission, challenging Senate control of state finances and foreign policy. When it became clear that Tiberius did not have enough time to finish his land reforms, even with political and economic backing, he announced that he would run again for the tribunate, violating annuality. This was the last straw for the patricians, who, fearing that Tiberius was setting himself up as a tyrant, responded by slaughtering Tiberius and 300 of his followers in the streets of Rome. Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... In Roman law, Lex Hortensia (287 BCE) was the final result of the long class struggle between patricians and plebeians. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues. ... Pergamon or Pergamum (modern day Bergama in Turkey) was a Greek city, in northwestern Anatolia, 16 miles from the Aegean Sea, located on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 282...

Tiberius' younger brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus attempted to continue political reforms using similar tactics almost ten years later. He seems to have been more of a demagogue who attempted to pass a slew of popular laws to gain popular support rather than to be a political reformer with a specific agenda like his brother. He was neither as successful, or as popular, as his elder brother, but he managed to create many political enemies. Escalating political tensions finally exploded once again in violence on the Capitoline Hill, where Gaius Gracchus and 3,000 of his followers were killed. Gaius Gracchus (Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (154 BC-121 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. He was the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus and, like him, pursued a popular political agenda that eventually got him killed by the conservative faction of the... A demagogue (sometimes spelled demagog) is a leader who obtains power by appealing to the gut feelings of the public, usually by powerful use of rhetoric and propaganda. ... Piazza del Campidoglio, on the top of Capitoline Hill, with the façade of Palazzo Senatorio. ...

Whatever their intentions, the political careers of the Gracchi brothers had broken the political traditions of Rome, and introduced mob violence as a tool of Roman political life. It was a change that the Republic would not recover from.

Marius and Sulla

Gaius Marius, Military Reformer (107 to 100 BC)

Main article: Gaius Marius

"Marius amid the Ruins of Carthage" by John Vanderlyn

Following the scandal of the Gracchi, Roman politics became a mix of traditional forms, demagoguery, and mob violence. Additionally, Rome was finding the military demands of its holdings extremely taxing. Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ... The Jugurthine War (122-105 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and Jugurtha, the renegade king of the African client state of Numidia. ... The Battle of the Muthul was fought in 108 BC between the Numidians led by the Berber King Jugurtha, and a Roman force under Caecilius Metellus. ... Image File history File links An 1892 gravure of the 1807 painting Marius amidst the Ruins of Carthage by John Vanderlyn File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... John Vanderlyn (October 18, 1776 - September 23, 1852) was a U.S. neoclassicist painter, was born at Kingston, New York. ...

A badly executed, and unpopular, Jugurthine War (112-105 BC) was dragging on in Numidia. It would launch the career of Gaius Marius, and bring about fundamental changes in the Republic. The Jugurthine War (122-105 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and Jugurtha, the renegade king of the African client state of Numidia. ... Numidia was an ancient African Berber kingdom and later a Roman province on the northern coast of Africa between the province of Africa (where Tunisia is now) and the province of Mauretania (which is now the western part of Algerias coastal area). ... Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ...

Marius was a "novus homo" from Arpinum who had wealth and minor political influence, but who was not a member of the Roman aristocracy. After serving as a minor officer in the Jugurthine War, Marius returned to Rome, and stood for election as Consul in 107 BC, based on the promise to end the war within a year. Surprisingly, Marius was elected. The term novus homo (literally, new man in Latin), referred in ancient Roman times to a person who was the first of his family to serve in the Roman Senate, or, less generally, the first to be elected as consul. ... Arpinum was an ancient Roman town in southern Latium, now Arpino. ... Consul (abbrev. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 112 BC 111 BC 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC - 107 BC - 106 BC 105 BC...

Upon attaining the Consulship, and over the extreme protests of the Senate, Marius instituted the Marian reforms in 107 BC. These reorganized the tactical structure of the Roman legion, and allowed the recruitment of poor and landless Roman citizens into the legions, at state expense. Soldiers would enlist for a period of 20 years, and would be rewarded with a land grant at the end of their term of service. This would change the nature of the legions, as legionnaires would from this point on be professional soldiers fighting for their "pension", and the general who would obtain it for them, as much as for "the state". The Marian reforms of 107 BC were a group of reforms proposed by a Roman republic statesman and army general named Gaius Marius. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 112 BC 111 BC 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC - 107 BC - 106 BC 105 BC... The Legion of Super-Heroes is a team of comic book superheroes in the future. ...

With his new "head count" armies, Marius returned to Numidia as the Consular commander. Although Marius did not complete the war within the year, he was elected Consul for a second time, and in absentia (both amazingly unusual exceptions), to complete the war. In 105 BC, Marius defeated Jugurtha, who was captured by King Bocchus I of Mauretania and handed over to one of Marius' quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In Absentia is the eighth studio album by British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, first released in September 24, 2002. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC - 105 BC - 104 BC 103 BC... Jugurtha, (c. ... Bocchus (Greek, Βοκχος, Bochos) was a King of Mauretania designated by historians as Bocchus I. He was also the father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom he made war against the Romans. ... Mauretania was a Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of north Africa (named after the Mauri tribe, after whom the Moors were named), corresponding to western Algeria and northern Morocco. ... Quaestors were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ...

Returning to Rome a military hero, Marius arrived to deal with the aftermath of the disaster of the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, and the fact that Roman territory was now open to invasion from migrating Cimbri and Teutoni tribes. Amazingly, Marius was elected Consul for three more years (104 to 102 BC) to fight the remainder of the Cimbrian War. The Battle of Arausio took place on October 6, 105 BC, at a site between the town of Arausio and the Rhone River. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC - 105 BC - 104 BC 103 BC... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Cimbrian War. ... The term Germanic peoples may refer to: the Germanic tribes that in the first millennium were seen as a barbarian threat by the Roman Empire and its successors; the Germanic Christianity that in the second millennium came to dominate much of Northern Europe, politically organized in the Holy Roman Empire... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC - 104 BC - 103 BC 102 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC 104 BC 103 BC - 102 BC - 101 BC 100 BC... Combatants Roman Republic Cimbri, Teutons Commanders Marius, Lutatius Catulus, Servilius Caepio, Manlius Maximus, Papirius Carbo Boiorix, Teutobod Lugius Strength Varied, ranging from around 40,000 to over 80,000 Varied but estimated at around 300,000 maxium Casualties Estimated between 150-180,000 300,000, Both tribes annihalated The Cimbrian...

He raised new Legions from plebeian volunteers, trained them, crushed the Teutoni at the Battle of Aquae Sextae in 102 BC, and aided Quintus Lutatius Catulus to likewise defeat the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. Having saved Rome, Marius was elected to Consul an unprecedented 6th time in 100 BC. The term Germanic peoples may refer to: the Germanic tribes that in the first millennium were seen as a barbarian threat by the Roman Empire and its successors; the Germanic Christianity that in the second millennium came to dominate much of Northern Europe, politically organized in the Holy Roman Empire... The Battle of Aquae Sextae was fought in 102 BC between a Roman army led by Gaius Marius and a large force of Teutoni. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC 104 BC 103 BC - 102 BC - 101 BC 100 BC... Quintus Lutatius Catulus Caesar was a Roman general and was consul with Marius in 102 BC. He was originally Sextus Julius Caesar, son of Sextus Julius Caesar (brother of Gaius Julius Caesar, who was father of Gaius Julius Caesar, who was in turn father of Julius Caesar) and brother of... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Cimbrian War. ... Combatants Cimbri Roman Republic Commanders King Boiorix † Marius Lutatius Catulus Sulla Strength 160,000 - over 200,000 50,000 (8 legions with cavalry and auxillaries) Casualties 100,000 - 140,000 killed 60,000 captured Insignificant, probably under 1,000 The Battle of Vercellae, also called The Battle of the Raudine... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 106 BC 105 BC 104 BC 103 BC 102 BC - 101 BC - 100 BC 99 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 105 BC 104 BC 103 BC 102 BC 101 BC - 100 BC - 99 BC 98 BC 97 BC 96 BC 95...

However, Marius would prove that he was a General, and not a politician. After a humiliating political scandal concerning Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, Marius completely withdrew from public political life. Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, Roman demagogue. ...

The Social war (91 to 88 BC)

Further information: Gaius Marius, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Social War, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

With Marius' retirement, the way was cleared for the political career of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla was a patrician, and a traditional political conservative, who had served under Marius as a competent officer in Numidia and Germany. However, there was political enmity between the two, as Marius had "slighted" Sulla by failing to credit him with the capture of Jugurtha. Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ... The Social War (also called the Italian War) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and the other cities in Italy. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ... Jugurtha, (c. ...

In 91 BC, a tribune and political champion of the rights of the Latin allies, Livius Drusus, attempted to pass a law granting full Roman citizenship to all the Italian allies living south of the Po River. When Drusus was murdered, many of the Italian allies, especially those among the Samnites, exploded into the rebellion of the Social war (Soccii is Latin for ally). Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC - 90s BC - 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC Years: 96 BC 95 BC 94 BC 93 BC 92 BC - 91 BC - 90 BC 89 BC 88... Marcus Livius Drusus was the name of two magistrates in the Roman Republic. ... The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. ... The Po (Latin: Padus) is a river that flows 652 kilometers eastward across northern Italy, from Mount Monviso (in the Cottian Alps) to the Adriatic Sea near Venice. ... Samnite warriors Samnium (Oscan Safinim) was a region of the southern Apennines in Italy that was home to the Samnites, a group of Sabellic tribes that controlled the area from about 600 BC to about 290 BC. Samnium was delimited by Latium in the north, by Lucania in the south... The Social War (also called the Italian War) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and the other cities in Italy. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...

Ironically, to try and end the war, Rome offered full citizenship to any of the rebelling allies who would cease the conflict. Most of the allies ceased fighting, but several continued the rebellion. In response, Gaius Marius came out of retirement, and commanded the Roman forces in northern Italy, while Lucius Cornelius Sulla commanded the Roman legions in southern Italy, bringing the war to an end in 88 BC. Following their joint victory, Sulla stood for election as Consul, and was elected. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 93 BC 92 BC 91 BC 90 BC 89 BC - 88 BC - 87 BC 86 BC 85...

The first Mithridatic, and Roman civil wars (88 to 83 BC)

Further information: Gaius Marius, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and First Mithridatic War, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

When Mithridates VI of Pontus overran Bithynia as the Social war ended, and slaughtered tens of thousands of Roman citizens in the Asiatic Vespers, the Senate gave Sulla the Consular command of the expeditionary force sent to extract revenge against Mithridates. Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ... The First Mithridatic War was fought between the Roman Republic and Mithridates VI Eupator Dionysius, the king of Pontus. ... Mithridates VI of Pontus, (132 BC- 63 BC), called Eupator Dionysius, also known as Mithridates the Great, was the king of Pontus in Asia Minor and one of Romes most formidable and successful enemies, meeting and engaging three of the most successful generals of the late Republic. ... This article contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... The Social War (also called the Italian War) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and the other cities in Italy. ...

Gaius Marius did not wish to return to political obscurity, and bribed the passage of a bill through the Plebeian Assembly to give himself command of Sulla's armies. When Sulla heard of this while raising his legions in southern Italy, he turned his armies on Rome itself! Sulla's legions captured the city after protracted and bloody street fighting in Rome, and Marius was forced to flee to Africa. Sulla then departed to confront Mithridates and his allies. Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... Mithridates VI of Pontus, (132 BC- 63 BC), called Eupator Dionysius, also known as Mithridates the Great, was the king of Pontus in Asia Minor and one of Romes most formidable and successful enemies, meeting and engaging three of the most successful generals of the late Republic. ...

Marius returned to Rome with Lucius Cornelius Cinna and captured the city with his legions. Marius appointed himself Consul for a 7th time and proceeded to butcher Sulla's supporters. However, only a few weeks later Marius died of a massive brain hemorrhage. Cinna retained power, and in an almost comic twist, decided to ignore Sulla's existence completely, even sending a second army to Pontus. The two Roman armies spent as much time fighting each other as Mithridates, and the war came to a disappointing close with the Treaty of Dardanos in 85 BC. Lucius Cornelius Cinna (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·L·N·CINNA), a member of the Cinna family of the Cornelii of ancient Rome, was a supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. ... Lucius Cornelius Cinna (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·L·N·CINNA), a member of the Cinna family of the Cornelii of ancient Rome, was a supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. ... Mithridates VI of Pontus, (132 BC- 63 BC), called Eupator Dionysius, also known as Mithridates the Great, was the king of Pontus in Asia Minor and one of Romes most formidable and successful enemies, meeting and engaging three of the most successful generals of the late Republic. ... The Treaty of Dardanos (85 BC) was a Roman treaty after the First Mithridatic War. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 90 BC 89 BC 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC - 85 BC - 84 BC 83 BC 82...

Sulla then returned to Rome with his Legions in 83 BC. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC - 83 BC - 82 BC 81 BC 80...

The bloody reign of Sulla (83 to 80 BC)

Main article: Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson

Cinna was killed by his own troops trying to muster them against the returning Legions of Sulla, leaving Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and other of Marius' supporters to deal with Sulla's return. In 83 BC Sulla landed in southern Italy, and full scale Roman civil war broke out in the Italian countryside. The war raged on for a year and a half, but Sulla's legions (aided by those of a young Marcus Licinius Crassus and a young Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) finally prevailed, taking the city of Rome at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Sullahead. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Sullahead. ... This page is about the Roman dictator Sulla, for the Brythonic goddess sometimes called Sulla, see Sul. ... Lucius Cornelius Cinna (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·L·N·CINNA), a member of the Cinna family of the Cornelii of ancient Rome, was a supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. ... Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (c. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC - 83 BC - 82 BC 81 BC 80... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS·DIVES¹) (ca. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ... The battle of the Colline Gate, fought in November of 82 BC, was the final battle of the civil war between the peoples party of ancient Rome (originally led by Marius) and the aristocrats led by Sulla. ...

Sulla then instituted a bloody series of purges, subjecting his enemies to proscription: a process named for the lists of the condemned posted in the Roman forum. People were stripped of their legal rights and protection, had their (and their family's) property impounded by the state, and a bounty placed on their lives. Thousands of Romans who opposed Sulla, or even those who simply had wealth that he and his followers coveted, were butchered in this fashion over a period of two years. Proscription (French: proscriptio) is the public identification and official condemnation of enemies of the state. ... The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum, although the Romans referred to it more often as the Forum Magnum or just the Forum) was the central area around which ancient Rome developed, in which commerce, business, prostitution, cult and the administration of justice took place. ...

Sulla also appointed himself dictator without limit, and began reorganizing the state, attempting to return power to the Senate. He strongly curtailed the power of the Plebeian Assembly, doubled the size of the Roman Senate, gave the Senate veto power over the decrees of the Plebeian Assembly, and stripped the Tribunes of much of their power. Dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. ... Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ... The Roman Senate (Latin, Senatus) was a deliberative body which was important in the government of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ...

With his reforms in place, Sulla then, surprisingly, resigned his dictatorship in 80 BC, withdrew completely from public life, and retired to his country estates — if ancient sources are correct, there to pursue a life of debauchery — until his death in 78 BC. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 85 BC 84 BC 83 BC 82 BC 81 BC - 80 BC - 79 BC 78 BC 77... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 83 BC 82 BC 81 BC 80 BC 79 BC - 78 BC - 77 BC 76 BC 75...

The First Triumvirate

Further information: First Triumvirate, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

Throughout the decade of the 70's, Roman politics was controlled by the conservatives, due to Sulla's reforms. These reforms would be wiped away piecemeal over the next ten years due to gradual legislative change. Sulla's tactic of using military force to seize power in Rome was the legacy that endured. This article does not cite its references or sources. ...

Pompey in the West: The revolts of Lepidus and Sertorius (78 to 72 BC)

bust of Pompey the Great

Within two years of Sulla's death, someone attempted to emulate him. When one of the Consuls of 78 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, failed to carry out his intended political agenda, or have his Consulship extended, he attempted to raise an army in Cisalpine Gaul and march on Rome to seize power. The Senate turned to a military general who had aided Sulla in his civil war, and shown himself also to be a competent commander in Africa for Sulla: Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Image File history File links Hw-pompey. ... Image File history File links Hw-pompey. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 83 BC 82 BC 81 BC 80 BC 79 BC - 78 BC - 77 BC 76 BC 75... Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (120-77 BC), was a Roman statesman. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ...

Pompey put down Lepidus's rebellion, and then marched his own legions on Rome. Pompey camped his army outside the walls of Rome, and "requested" that he be given the right to campaign against the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania (Sertorius was an opponent of Sulla's who had fled to Hispania during the proscriptions, and set up his own "counter-Rome" in that province). Under the threat of the legions, the Senate agreed, and Pompey marched on Hispania where he would campaign for the next 6 years, gaining a great military reputation for himself. Quintus Sertorius (died 72 BC), Roman statesman and general. ... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ... Proscription (French: proscriptio) is the public identification and official condemnation of enemies of the state. ...

Crassus: Spartacus and the Third Serville War (73 to 71 BC)

Further information: Third Servile War, and Spartacus, and Marcus Licinius Crassus, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]

One of the more easily over-looked social aspect in classical antiquity and of Roman society is Slavery. At that time almost all societies used slaves in various positions. The vast majority would perform back-breaking and dangerous labor and the more educated slave (a small minority) would work in a more bureaucratic position. The lives of the majority of slaves would usually consist of hard work and their living conditions would be quite harsh. From time to time slaves would revolt and military might would be used to crush the rebellion and the matter would be conveniently forgotten and nothing would happen. This time, it would be different. The Third Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans in Italy, under command of the famous Spartacus. ... Kirk Douglas in the title role of the 1960 film Spartacus. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS·DIVES¹) (ca. ... It has been suggested that Greco-Roman be merged into this article or section. ... The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ...

The Roman Republic would be rocked by a slave revolt led by Spartacus who according to ancient sources was a Thracian auxilia who had deserted from the Roman legions. He had been captured, enslaved and trained as a gladiator. In 73 BC he and some of his fellow gladiators rebelled at Capua and set up a military camp on Mount Vesuvius. Slaves across all the Italian peninsula flocked to him, and their numbers soon swelled to about 70,000. The best Roman legions were absent from Italy: some were in Spain under the command of Pompey, suppressing a rebellion led by Quintus Sertorius, while others were fighting in Asia Minor under the command of Lucius Licinius Lucullus against Mithridates. Initially, the rebel slaves had great success against the Roman legions sent against them, and wreaked havoc across the Italian peninsula. In 71 BC, however, Marcus Licinius Crassus was given military command and crushed the rebels. About 6,000 were crucified; 10,000 survivors who escaped were intercepted by Pompey, then returning with his army from Spain. Although Crassus did most of the fighting, Pompey also claimed credit for the victory, and this created tension between the two men. Kirk Douglas in the title role of the 1960 film Spartacus. ... The term auxiliaries comes from latin auxilia, name for non-citizen troops supporting Roman legions. ... Pollice Verso, an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, is a well known history painters researched conception of a gladiatorial combat. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 78 BC 77 BC 76 BC 75 BC 74 BC - 73 BC - 72 BC 71 BC 70... Capua (modern Santa Maria Capua Vetere) was the chief ancient city of Campania, and one of the most important towns of ancient Italy, situated 25 km (16 mi) north of Neapolis, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain. ... This article is about the volcano in Italy. ... Lucius Licinius Lucullus (c. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 76 BC 75 BC 74 BC 73 BC 72 BC - 71 BC - 70 BC 69 BC 68... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS·DIVES¹) (ca. ...

Pompey and Crassus (70 BC)

With the slave rebellion crushed, Pompey once again marched his legions on Rome, and encamped outside its walls. He then demanded that he be elected Consul for the year 70 BC. In response Crassus immediately marched his legions towards Rome. However, instead of blocking Pompey's extortion, he camped his own legions outside Rome and demanded that he be elected co-Consul with Pompey. The Senate had no real choice but to agree. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 75 BC 74 BC 74 BC 73 BC 72 BC 71 BC 70 BC 69 BC 68...

Crassus and Pompey spent most of the year trying to outdo each other in the lavishness of their public expenditures. However they also pushed through several laws which wiped away the last vestiges of the "Sullan Reforms", and restored the problematic power of the Plebeian Assembly. Known in Latin as the Comitia Plebis Tributa. ...

Pompey in the East: The Third Mithradatic War

Meanwhile, Lucullus was fighting quite successfully, against Mithridates and his ally and son-in-law, Tigranes the Great, King of Armenia, but was unable to completely pacify the territories he conquered. At the same time, Marcus Antonius Creticus (father of Mark Antony) and Q. Caecilius Metellus were attempting to stamp out the plague of piracy afflicting the Mediterranean, with reportedly grotesque incompetence. This article is about a king of Armenia in the 1st century BC. For other historical figures with the same name (including other kings of Armenia) see Tigranes. ... Marcus Antonius Creticus (lived 1st century BC) was a Roman politician, member of the Antonius family. ... The Flag of 18th Century pirate Calico Jack This article is about sea piracy; for other uses of Piracy or Pirate, see Pirate (disambiguation). ...

Catiline propaganda cup for the election to 62 BC consulate (right cup). These cups, filled with food or drinks, were distributed to the electors to gain support for the candidates.

Due to these lack of successes, Pompey was given an extraordinary military command in 66 BC. He stamped out piracy within forty-nine days and then began pursuing Mithridates. Pompey annihilated his army, and Mithridates remained a fugitive for the last three years of his life. Pompey followed up these successes by conquering the entirety of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, ending the rule of the Syrian Seleucid dynasty. The captured wealth of the conquests more than doubled the income of the Roman state, and Pompey now surpassed Crassus as the wealthiest man in Rome. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2032x1524, 470 KB) Roman propaganda cups, 1st century BC, from Museo Nazionale Romano - Terme di Diocleziano, Rome. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2032x1524, 470 KB) Roman propaganda cups, 1st century BC, from Museo Nazionale Romano - Terme di Diocleziano, Rome. ... Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC?–62 BC), known in English as Catiline, was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59... Events Roman Republic Consuls: Manius Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Volcacius Tullus Catiline accused of conspiring against the Roman Republic with Autronius and the younger Sulla. ...

The Catilinarian Conspiracies

The economic situation in Rome itself, however, was still problematic. Debt was the intractable problem and many, both noble and not, found themselves burdened with incredible debts. Their mantle was taken up by Lucius Sergius Catilina, who ran for consul in 64 BC for the year 63 BC on the platform of a wholesale debt cancellation – essentially a redistribution of wealth. Despite his noble birth, his policies scared the optimates, who instead supported the novus homo Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero was duly elected; Catilina finished third and out of office. Catilina ran again the following year, but this time he was defeated even more heavily. He then, along with several dissolute senators, began planning a coup d'état that would include arson throughout Rome, the arming of slaves, and the accession of Catilina as dictator. Cicero found out and informed the Senate in a series of brilliant speeches, and was given absolute power by the senate ("senatus consultum ultimum"), in order to save the republic. He ordered the execution of the conspirators in the city without due trial; and his fellow consul, Gaius Antonius Hybrida defeated the army of Catilina near Pistoria. None of Catilina's soldiers were taken alive. Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) (108 BC-62 BC) was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 69 BC 68 BC 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61... For other uses see Cicero (disambiguation) Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC - December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist. ... A coup détat (pronounced ), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government against the volonté générale formed by the majority of the citizenry, usually done by a smaller supposedly weaker body that just replaces the top power figures. ... A Senatus consultum ultimum (Ultimate decree of the Senate), or more properly, senatus consultum de re publica defendenda (Decree of the Senate on defending the Republic) was a decree of the Roman Senate during the late Roman Republic passed in times of emergency. ... Gaius Antonius Hybrida (lived 1st century BC) was an Ancient Rome politician. ... Pistoia (ancient Pistoria) is a city in the Tuscany region of Italy, the capital of a province of the same name, located about 30 km (18 mi) west and north of Florence. ...

Julius Caesar and the First Triumvirate

Bust of Gaius Julius Caesar

In 62 BC Pompey returned from the east. Many senators, especially among the optimates, feared that Pompey would follow in the footsteps of Sulla and establish himself as dictator. Instead, Pompey disbanded his army upon arriving in Italy. Nevertheless, the Senate maintained its opposition to land grants for Pompey's veterans and the ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement. In addition, the Senate was also stonewalling Pompey's old enemy, Crassus, in his attempts to gain some measure of relief for his allies, the tax farmers. Now arriving onto the scene was a young politician who had a heretofore successful, but not brilliant, career — Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar took advantage of the two enemy's dissatisfaction to bring them into an informal alliance known as the First Triumvirate. In addition, he reinforced his alliance by marrying his daughter, Julia, to Pompey. The three triumvirs would be able to dominate Roman politics due to their collective influence; the first step was Caesar's election to the consulship for 59 BC. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59... Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Daughter to Gaius Julius Caesar and Cornelia Cinna, Julia was born around 83 BC. Her mother and brother, both died from childbirth in 69 BC. After, she was raised and lived with her paternal grandmother Aurelia Cotta. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59 BC 58 BC 57 BC 56...

Attempting to pass the laws which would benefit both Pompey and Crassus, Caesar ran into heavy opposition from his very conservative consular colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who used all manner of parliamentary tactics to stall the legislation. Caesar resorted to violence and Bibulus ended up under house arrest for most of the year, while Caesar was able to pass almost all of his legislation. He was then appointed Governor of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for a five year period. When the Governor of Transalpine Gaul died unexpectedly, the Senate assigned that province to him as well. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was a politician of the late Roman Republic. ... Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning Gaul this side of the Alps) was a province of the Roman Republic, in Emilia and Lombardy of modern-day northern Italy. ... This article is about an ancient civilization in southeastern Europe; see also Illyria (software), Illyria (character in the TV series Angel). ... Transalpine Gaul was a Roman province whose name was chosen to distinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul. ...

Caesar took up his governorships in 58 BC. He immediately launched a series of military campaigns across all of Gaul known as the Gallic Wars, and even raided Germania and Britannia. For a nine year period he carefully played the gallic tribes against each other (divide and rule) and crushed all military opposition. These wars caused massive death and destruction and were, technically, illegal, as Caesar had exceeded his authority (which was supposedly limited to his provinces) in launching the invasions, but in Rome no one, except his enemies in the Senate, was too concerned. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59 BC 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC The Gallic Wars were a series of wars fought between the Romans and the people of Gaul during the mid-first century BC, culminating in the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC which resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic across Gaul. ... In the Roman era Germania was the Latin name for a geographical area that stretched from the west bank of the Rhine to a vaguely-defined eastern frontier with the forest and steppe regions of modern Russia and Ukraine. ... Principal sites in Roman Britain Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between 43 and 410 CE. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. ... In politics and sociology, divide and rule (also known as divide and conquer) is a strategy of gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into chunks that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. ...

Meanwhile, the Triumvirate at home needed a boosting. In 56 BC, the three triumvirs met at Lucca, just inside Caesar's province of Cisalpine Gaul (as a man in control of an army, he was not allowed to cross into Italy). The three triumvirs reached a new settlement: Crassus and Pompey were once again to be elected consuls for the year 55 BC; Pompey kept the command of the Roman legions in Spain (which he ruled in "absentia"), and Crassus, desiring military glory so that he could be on the same level as Pompey and Caesar, was given a military command in the east. Caesar's governorships were extended for another five years. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 61 BC 60 BC 59 BC 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53... Lucca (population 90,000) is a city in Tuscany, northern central Italy, near (but not on) the Ligurian Sea. ...

The Death of Crassus and the Dissolution of the Triumverate

The Parthian Empire, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c 60 BC.

In 53 BC, Crassus launched an invasion of the Parthian Empire. He marched his army deep into the desert; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and routed at the Battle of Carrhae. Crassus himself was killed in battle, the story being that the Parthians, upon finding his body poured molten gold down his throat, symbolising Crassus' obsession with money. Image File history File links The location of ancient Parthia, an Iranian kingdom, c. ... Parthian Empire at its greatest extent, c60 BCE. The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east and... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59 BC 58 BC 57... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50... Parthia, or known in their native Iranian language as Ashkâniân [2] (also called the Arsacid Empire) was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. It was the second dynasty of... Combatants Roman Republic Parthia Commanders Marcus Licinius Crassus † Eran Spahbod Surena Strength 44,000-52,000 (28000 Roman legionary cohorts, 2000 Roman cavalrymen and 1000 Gallic cavalrymen) 10,000 (1000-1500 Heavy cavalry (Cataphracts) and 9000 archer cavalry) Casualties 4,000 wounded, 20,000 dead, 10,000 captured Minimal The...

The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate; consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. In 52 BC, Julia died, widening the gap emerging between the two. Pompey, who previously had been the leader of the Triumvirate and, indeed, of the republic, was beginning to see his authority threatened by Caesar, whose campaigns in Gaul were vastly increasing his prestige, fortune and power. Consequently, Pompey began to align increasingly with the optimates, who themselves were very much opposed to Caesar and his "party" (i.e., the populares). Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 57 BC 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49...

At the same time an united Gallic uprising, led by Vercingetorix, nearly succeeded in toppling the Roman military presence in Gaul; but Caesar, with his usual speed and brilliant mix of military strategy and ruthlessness, was able to defeat Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia. The Gallic Wars were essentially over (a third of all male Gauls had been slain; another third had been sold into slavery). Statue of Vercingetorix by Bartholdi, on Place de Jaude, in Clermont-Ferrand Vercingetorix (72 BC - 46 BC), (French: Vercingétorix) chieftain of the Arverni, led the great Gallic revolt against the Romans in 53-52 BC. His name in Gaulish means over-king of the marching men; the marching men... Combatants Roman Republic Gallic Tribes Commanders Julius Caesar Vercingetorix Commius Strength about 60,000 about 80,000 besieged about 100,000 relief forces Casualties Unknown Unknown The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia was a conflict fought in September 52 BC around the Gallic oppidum of Alesia, a major...

By 50 BC all Gallic resistance had been stamped out and Caesar had a veteran and loyal army to further his political ambitions. With Caesar's governorship drawing to a close, the two greatest political and military leaders of the Roman Republic were hard-pressed to find any common ground, and a crisis was growing which would be the final nail in the coffin of the Republic. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47...

The Civil War and Caesar's dictatorship

The key issue was whether or not Caesar would be able to stand for the consulship of 48 BC in absentia. Caesar's governorship's would expire at the end of 49 BC, and so would his immunity from trial. He was sure to be charged with violations of the constitution stemming from his consulship of 59 BC, which could result in his political and probably even physical, death. If he was allowed to run in absentia, he could immediately assume another consulship, and then following that, immediately assume a new governorship, always maintaining his immunity. The optimates were heavily opposed to Caesar's standing in absentia, and on the first of January, 49 BC, passed a law declaring Caesar a public enemy and demanded his return to Rome to stand trial. Pompey was given absolute authority to defend the Roman Republic. This news reached Caesar probably on January 10, and proclaiming "alea iacta est" - "the die is cast" (in fact, he said it in Greek, quoting Menander), Caesar crossed the Rubicon River (the boundary between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy) with his army. Civil war had begun again. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC... Events The Great Roman Civil War commences - January 1 - The Roman Senate receives a proposal from Julius Caesar that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. ... Events The Great Roman Civil War commences - January 1 - The Roman Senate receives a proposal from Julius Caesar that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. ... For the Indo-Greek king (160–135 BC) see Menander the Just. ... Rubicon River may refer to: Rubicon (Rubico), an ancient Latin name for a small river in northern Italy. ... A civil war is a war in which parties within the same country or empire struggle for national control of state power. ...

Caesar, leading a tough veteran army, quickly swept down the Italian peninsula, and encountered meager resistance from freshly recruited legions. The only exception was at Corfinium, where Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus was defeated. Caesar pardoned him, under his notable policy of clemency — he wanted to let everyone know that he would not be the next Sulla. He took Rome without opposition, and then marched south to try and stop Pompey, who was trying to withdraw from Brundisium across the Adriatic Sea to Greece. Caesar came close, but Pompey and his armies were able to escape at the last minute. CORFINIUM is a city in ancient Rome. ... Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, a member of the noble Ahenobarbus family, accompanied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been pardoned by Julius Caesar, returned to Rome in 46 BC. After Caesars assassination he attached himself to Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius, and in 43 BC was condemned by... A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it. ... Brundisium (Gr. ...

In 48 BC Pompey controlled the seas, and his legions heavily outnumbered Caesar's; but the legions of Caesar, after ten years of vigorous campaigns, were experienced veterans. Caesar, for his lack of a navy, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean, notably at Massilia and in Spain. Then he invaded Greece. The two leaders first faced each other at the Battle of Dyrrhachium, where Pompey won a major victory. Nevertheless, Pompey failed to follow up on his victory, and Caesar was able to regroup and win a decisive victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on the 9th of August. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he hoped to find assistance. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC... Marseilles redirects here. ... Battle of Dyrrhachium Conflict Roman Republican civil wars Date July 10, 48 BC Place Dyrrhachium Result Victory of Pompey The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Julius Caesar and Pompey that ended with Pompeys defeat in the... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Strength Approximately 23,000 legionaries, 5,000-10,000 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 1400 Approximately 50,000 legionaries, 4,200 Auxiliaries and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 4,000-7,000 Casualties 1,200 6,000-10,000...

Bust of Cleopatra, with her hair in a Greek style bun

Caesar pursuing Pompey, arrived in Alexandria, capital of Ptolemaic Egypt, to find the breadbasket of the Mediterranean in a state of civil war. Agents of the young king, Ptolemy XIII, had assassinated Pompey and presented his head to Caesar, believing it would please him and that he would support Ptolemy against his sister, Cleopatra. Caesar was too a cunning politician to make such a mistake. In a careful way he lamented the inglorious death of Pompey, a fellow roman, and supported the military weaker side, whose gratitude would logically be much greater. He even began an affair with Cleopatra. A long, drawn-out city battle resulted, one of the most dangerous of Caesar's career, but he triumphed and placed Cleopatra on the throne along with another brother, Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra later gave birth to Caesar's son, Caesarion, titled Ptolemy Caesar. Caesar hearing of an invasion in Asia Minor led by Pharnaces II of Pontus, the son of the old Roman enemy Mithridates, advanced there in 47 BC, and won a quick victory at the Battle of Zela. It was then that Caesar famously said: "Veni, Vidi, Vici" - "I came, I saw, I conquered." Cleopatra Information about this image, please? Presumed fair use for article about Cleopatra VII of Egypt This work is copyrighted. ... Cleopatra Information about this image, please? Presumed fair use for article about Cleopatra VII of Egypt This work is copyrighted. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article needs to be updated. ... The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Greek royal family which ruled over Egypt for nearly 300 years, from 305 BC to 30 BC. Ptolemy, a Macedonian and one of Alexander the Greats generals, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexanders death in 323 BC. In 305 BC he declared... Ptolemy XIII (lived 62 BC/61 BC -January 13? 47 BC, reigned 51 BC - January 13?, 47 BC) was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Ptolemy XIV (lived 60 BC/59 BC - 44 BC, reigned 47 BC - 44 BC), a son of Ptolemy XII of Egypt was one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. ... Cleopatra and Caesarion at the temple of Dendera, Egypt Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar) (lived June 23, 47 BC to August, 30 BC; reigned September 2, 44 BC to August, 30 BC), the last pharaoh of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, believed to be the son... Pharnaces II of Pontus (63 BC - 47 BC), was the king of Pontus and son of the great Mithridates VI. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI in 64 BC and gained control of much of Asia Minor, but Pharnaces II attempted to take advantage of the Roman civil war to retake... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC... Zela is a titular see of Asia Minor, suffragan of Amasea in the Helenopontus. ... Veni, vidi, vici is a famous Latin phrase coined by Roman general and consul Julius Caesar in 47 BC; Caesar used the phrase as the full text of his message to the Roman senate describing his recent victory over Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela. ...

In 46 BC Caesar went to North Africa to deal with the regrouping remnants of the pro-Pompeian forces under Cato the Younger and Titus Labienus. After a slight setback in the Battle of Ruspina he defeated them at the Battle of Thapsus. Much to Caesar's chagrin, Cato committed suicide. Caesar had wanted to pardon Cato, his most intractable foe, in order to gain popularity through further clemency. In 45 BC, he went to Spain, and won the final victory over the pro-Pompeian forces in the terrifying Battle of Munda. He said that before, he always had fought for victory, but in Munda he had fought for his life. He then returned to Rome; he had less than a year to live. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC... Marcus Porcius Cato Uticencis (95 BC–46 BC), known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great-grandfather Cato the Elder, was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. ... Titus Labienus (c. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus Strength Casualties {{{notes}}} The Battle of Ruspina was fought on January 4, 46 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus. ... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Metellus Scipio †, Cato the younger † Strength Unknown (at least 10 legions) Unknown (at least 10 legions), 2,500 cavalry Jubas allied troops with 60 elephants Casualties 1,000 30,000 {{{notes}}} The Battle of Thapsus took place on February 6, 46 BC near... Suicide (from Latin sui caedere, to kill oneself) is the act of willfully ending ones own life. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC... Combatants Populares Optimates Commanders Julius Caesar Titus Labienus †, Gnaeus Pompeius; Strength 8 legions, 8,000 cavalry total: circa 40,000 men 13 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries total: circa 70,000 men Casualties 1,000 30,000 The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in the plains...

In that final year Caesar launched many reforms. He tightly regulated the distribution of free grain, keeping those who could afford private grain from having access to the grain dole. He reformed the calendar, changing from a Lunar to a Solar calendar and giving his gens name to the 7th month (July). This calendar, with minor changes made by Octavian (who would later rename the 8th month (August) after one of his titles) and Pope Gregory in 1582, has survived until now. He also reformed the debt problem. At the same time, he continued to accept enormous honors from the Senate. He was named Pater Patriae - "Father of his Country", and began wearing the clothing of the old Roman kings. This deepened the rift between Caesar and the aristocratic republican Senators, many of whom he had pardoned during the civil war. A calendar is a system for naming periods of time, typically days. ... A lunar calendar is a calendar whose date indicates the moon phase. ... A solar calendar is a calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the sun (or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving on the celestial sphere). ... GENS is an open source emulator for the Sega Genesis (Sega Megadrive). ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Events January 15 - Russia cedes Livonia and Estonia to Poland February 24 - Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian Calendar. ... Pater Patriae (plural Patres Patriae), also seen as Parens Patriae, is a Latin honorific title meaning Father of the Fatherland. ...

In 45 BC he had been named dictator for ten years. This was followed up in 44 BC with his appointment of dictator for life. A two-fold problem was created; firstly, all political power would be concentrated in the hands of Caesar for the foreseeable future, in effect subordinating the Senate to his whims; and secondly, only Caesar's death would end this. As such, a group of about 60 senators, led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, conspired to assassinate Caesar in order to save the republic. They carried out their deed on the Ides of March 15 of March 44 BC, three days before Caesar was scheduled to go east to defeat the Parthians. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Dictatorship. ... Gaius Cassius Longinus (Before 85 BC – October, 42 BC) was a Roman senator and the prime mover in the conspiracy against Julius Caesar. ... Marcus Junius Brutus Caepio (85 BC – 42 BC), or simply Brutus, was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. ... Vincenzo Camuccini, Mort de César, 1798. ... Reproduction of a Parthian warrior as depicted on Trajans Column The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Origins Bust of Parthian soldier, Esgh-abad Museum, Turkmenia. ...

The Second Triumvirate and Octavian's triumph

Bust of Mark Antony

After Caesar's assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, Marcus Antonius, seized the last will of Caesar and using it in a inflammatory speech against the murderers, incited the mob against them. The murderers panicked and fled to Greece. In Caesar's will, his grand-nephew Octavianus who also was the adopted son of Caesar, was named as his political heir. Octavian returned from Greece (where he and his friends Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Gaius Maecenas had been helping in the gathering of the Macedonian legions for the planned invasion of Parthia) and raised a small army from among Caesar's veterans. After some initial disagreements, Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed the Second Triumvirate. Their combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power. In 42 BC, they followed the assassins into Greece, and mostly due to the generalship of Antony, defeated them at the Battle of Philippi on the 23 of October. Mark Antony, bust in vatican museum, Rome The copyright status of this vintage image is undetermined; it may still be copyrighted. ... For his relatives and other people with similar names, see Marcus Antonius (disambiguation). ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Marcus Agrippa Agrippa redirects here. ... Gaius or Cilnius Maecenas (70 - 8 BC) was a confidant and political advisor to Augustus Caesar, as well as an important sponsor of young poets. ... This page is about the contemporary of Caesar Augustus. ... The Second Triumvirate is the name historians give to the official political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian, later Caesar Augustus), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony. ... Events October 3 - First Battle of Philippi: The Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesars assassins Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius. ... For the American Civil War battle, see Battle of Philippi Races. ...

In 40 BC, Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus negotiated the Pact of Brundisium. Antony received all the richer provinces in the east, namely Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus and Cyrenaica and he was very close to Egypt, then the richest state of all. Octavian on the other hand received the Roman provinces of the west: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal), these territories were poorer but traditionally the better recruiting grounds; and Lepidus was given the minor province of Africa (modern Tunisia) to govern. Henceforth, the contest for supreme power would be between Antony and Octavian. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 10s BC Years: 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC 39 BC 38 BC 37... The Roman Empire 120 CE, the province of Achaea highlighted. ... This article is about the broad geographical and historical region of Epirus, spanning Greece and Albania. ... This article contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... After the colonisation of the Anatolian shores by the Ionian Greeks, Pontus soon became a name which was applied, in ancient times, to extensive tracts of country in the northeast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the Main), by... Roman conquest of Asia minor The Roman province of Asia was the administrative unit added to the late Republic, a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul who was an ex-consul, an honor granted only to Asia and the other rich province of Africa. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) is the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... The Roman Province of Gallia Belgica in 58 BCE The Roman Province of Gallia Belgica around 120 CE Gallia Belgica was a Roman province located in what is now the southern part of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northeastern France, and western Germany. ... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ... Roman North Africa The Roman Empire ca. ...

Sextus Pompeius denarius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. On this coin Sextus Pompeius claims to have been appointed by the Roman Senate of the command of the Italian coasts.

In the west, Octavian and Lepidus had first to deal with Sextus Pompeius, the surviving son of Pompey, who had taken control of Sicily and was running pirate operations in the whole of the Mediterranean, endangering the flow of the crucial Egyptian grain to Rome. In 36 BC, Lepidus, while besieging Sextus forces in Sicily, ignored Octavian's orders that no surrender would be allowed. Octavian then bribed the legions of Lepidus, and they deserted to him. This stripped Lepidus of all his remaining military and political power. Sextus Pompeius. ... Sextus Pompeius. ... Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, in English Sextus Pompey, was a Roman general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, in English Sextus Pompey, was a Roman general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius, in English Sextus Pompey, was a Roman general from the late Republic (1st century BC). ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 41 BC 40 BC 39 BC 38 BC 37 BC 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC...

Antony, in the east, was waging war against the Parthians. His campaign was not as successful as he would have hoped, though far more successful than Crassus. He took up an amorous relationship with Cleopatra, who gave birth to three children by him. In 34 BC, at the Donations of Alexandria, Antony "gave away" much of the eastern half of the empire to his children by Cleopatra. In Rome, this donation, the divorce of Octavia Minor and the affair with Cleopatra, and the seized testament of Antony (in which he famously asked to be buried in his beloved Alexandria) was used by Octavian in a vicious propaganda war accusing Antony of "going native", of being completely in the thrall of Cleopatra and of deserting the cause of Rome. He was careful not to attack Antony directly, for Antony was still quite popular in Rome; instead, the entire blame was placed on Cleopatra. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 39 BC 38 BC 37 BC 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC... Cleopatra Cleopatra VII Philopator (December, 70 BC or January, 69 BC–August 12?, 30 BC) was queen of ancient Egypt. ... For other Roman noble women of this name see Octavia (69 - 11 BC.) Octavia Thurina Minor was one of the most prominent women in Roman history, respected and admired by contemporaries for her loyalty, nobility and humanity and for maintaining traditional Roman feminine virtues. ... U.S. propaganda poster, depicting a Nazi stabbing a Bible. ...

In 31 BC war finally broke out. Approximately 200 senators, one-third of the Senate, abandoned Octavian to support Antony and Cleopatra. The final confrontation of the Roman Republic occurred on 2 of September, 31 BC, at the naval Battle of Actium where the fleet of Octavian under the command of Agrippa routed the combined fleet of Antony and Cleopatra; the two lovers fled to Egypt. Due to Octavian's victory and his skillful use of propaganda, negotiation and bribery the legions of Antony in Greece, Asia Minor and Cyrenaica went over to his side. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between... Marcus Agrippa Agrippa redirects here. ...

Bronze statue of Octavian, Archaeological Museum, Athens

Octavian continued on his march around the Mediterranean towards Egypt, receiving the submission of local kings and Roman governors along the way. He finally reached Egypt in 30 BC, but before Octavian could capture him, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra did the same within a few days. Bronze Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Bronze Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC...

The period of civil wars were finally over. Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted, or could to stand against Octavian, as the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control. He designated governors loyal to him to the half dozen "frontier" provinces, where the majority of the legions were situated, thus, at a stroke, giving him command of enough legions to ensure that no single governor could try to overthrow him. He also reorganized the Senate, purging it of unreliable or dangerous members, and "refilled it" with his supporters from the provinces and outside the Roman aristocracy, men who could be counted on to follow his lead. However, he left the majority of Republican institutions apparently intact, albeit feeble. Consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and debate still resounded through the Roman Curia. However it was Octavian who influenced everything and ultimately, controlled the final decisions, and had the legions to back it up, if necessary. A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people, i. ...

The Roman Senate and the Roman citizens, tired of the never-ending civil wars and unrest, were willing to toss aside the incompetent and unstable rule of the Senate and the popular assemblies in exchange for the iron will of one man who might set Rome back in order. By 27 BC the transition, though subtle and disguised, was made complete. In that year, Octavian offered back all his extraordinary powers to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and in fact titled Octavian Augustus - "the revered one". He was always careful to avoid the title of rex - "king", and instead took on the titles of princeps - "first citizen" and imperator, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders. All these titles, alongside the name of "Caesar", were used by all Roman Emperors and still survive slightly changed to this date. Prince derives from "Princeps" and Emperor from "Imperator", Caesar became "Kaiser" (German) and "Czar" (Russian). The Roman Empire had been born. Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC - 20s BC - 10s BC 0s 10s 20s 30s Years: 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC 25 BC 24 BC 23 BC 22... Augustus (plural augusti) is Latin for majestic or venerable. The feminine form is Augusta. ... The Latin word imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. ... This is a list of Roman Emperors with the dates they controlled the Roman Empire. ... The term prince (the female form is princess), from the Latin root princeps, when used for a member of the highest aristocracy, has several fundamentally different meanings - one generic, and several types of titles. ... An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. ... Kaiser is the German title meaning Emperor, derived from the Roman title of Caesar, as is the Slavic title of Tsar. ... Tsar, (Bulgarian цар�, Russian царь; often spelled Czar or Tzar in English), was the title used for the autocratic rulers of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires since 913, in Serbia in the middle of the 14th century, and in Russia from 1547 to 1917. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic regime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war. The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. For the city in Israel, see Tiberias. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Constantine XI† Mehmed II Strength 7,000 100,000 Casualties Entire garrison killed or captured Unknown, but heavy The Fall of Constantinople was the conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, on Tuesday, May 29... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ...

Causes of the subversion of the Republic into the Empire

the famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta

Officially, the republic never ended. Octavian (and his "heirs") supposedly "saved the republic" and ruled by "will of the Senate" until a future date, in which he would return his extraordinary powers back. This fiction was carefully maintained (at least at the beginning) by all of his successors. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1090x1646, 1850 KB) Description: Die Statue Kaiser Augustus in den Vatikanischen Museen, Rom Fotografiert von Andreas Wahra am 17. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1090x1646, 1850 KB) Description: Die Statue Kaiser Augustus in den Vatikanischen Museen, Rom Fotografiert von Andreas Wahra am 17. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ...

In truth, however, the Republic had been dying since 133 BC, with the killing of the Gracchi. Their deaths signaled the end of debate and legal procedure — from that point on, it was whoever was willing to go the farthest dictated policy. Murder became commonplace during election time, and mobs were often whipped up by opposing parties to frighten enemies into submission. It became accepted, even encouraged, to use force to 'preserve the Republic'. Senators who could not legally block reform used assassination and trumped-up criminal charges to stop it; reformers who could not legally pass their bills used the steadily growing anger of the Roman populace to terrify the Senate or appealed to powerful generals and their armies for military support. Each time someone used violence to achieve an end, someone else hit back even harder to counter it. When Marius used his army of gladiators, slaves, and plebeians to seize Rome, Sulla hit back using professional legions. The result was a short-term stability and further weakening of the underlying structure of government. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC - 133 BC - 132 BC 131 BC...

The change also became one that put the men before the Republic — no longer was it possible to survive in the new vicious world of Roman politics by being humble and loyal to the ideals of the ancestors. Powerful politicians vied to become "Primus inter pares" - "First amongst equals" through whatever means necessary, and ambitious men were only kept in check by other equally ambitious competitors. Marius and Sulla were the first, and their example gave rise to the first Triumvirate of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, and of the second one composed by Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. First among equals is a phrase which indicates that a person is the most senior of a group of people sharing the same rank or office. ...

Moreover, the Senate had proven, time and time again, to be so selfish, arrogant, incompetent and shortsighted that the Roman population no longer trusted them to lead. The Senate was often too willing to protect its friends, allies and members from lawful prosecution for even the most evident and extraordinary crimes; and because of this it lost the trust of the Roman citizens at large. When someone did come from their ranks and proved himself capable, the Romans flocked to them in a desperate hope that he might pull together the Republic and restore peace, law, and order. The Senate, using what means necessary, struck down these champions one by one, starting with the Gracchi. Each time this happened, the Roman people became more willing to accept the extreme measures of the reformers to ensure their laws, and their lives. Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon was technically treason, but no one outside the Senate cared, because it promised real change for a corrupt and unworkable Republic.

Within the Senate itself, the heavily entrenched, tradition-bound, rich conservative party was constantly at odds with any reformer that arose. The Gracchi worked outside the constitutional system by using the popular assemblies instead of the Senate; Marius had to fight tooth and nail just to get the necessary changes needed to recruit lower class soldiers; Sulla terrified the Senators with executions to enact reforms that were intended to actually preserve the powers of the Senate; and Caesar had to effectively conquer the whole Roman dominion in order to pass laws that were at least a century overdue. The harder the Senate fought to keep the status quo, the farther the reformers were willing to go, until at last it ended in Caesar's dictatorship.

The distrust the Roman citizens felt for the Senate was evident in the reaction of the troops to their commanders asking them to commit treason. The legions were willing to follow their commanders because they had no special love for the Senate, who only refused them pay and often fought over their rights to receive land upon returning home from war. There was no time when a commander asked his men to march with him on Rome and they refused, not one time where legionaries sided with the Senate. They chose to rally around names like Sulla and Pompey and Caesar, not the antiquated ideals of a Republic that rarely worked for them. The only thing that kept them in check, was each other. The Senate's inability to see this new reality cost it dearly. The Senate could not and did not want to adapt itself to the changing power structure, and as a result was pushed aside by those who could.

Part of the problem was that Rome's government was not designed to rule an empire. The Republic was meant to govern a city-state; one that was, even at its founding, growing in scope and power, but nevertheless only supposed to extend through the regions of central Italy. When territory was captured overseas, the Republic proved itself unable to effectively govern it. The provinces became fiefdoms of the governors, who proceeded to plunder them at will and engage in military adventures that did not have the approval of the Senate. These governors eventually took on Rome itself whenever they were threatened. There was no system of accountability, no ancient tradition of dealing with corrupt governors — the problem was new, and the Republic, so tradition-bound, would not change to handle it. Once the Republic became an Empire, only an Emperor could effectively rule it, not an oligarchic assembly. But it took nearly a century before that was fully realized.

In the end, the failure to control the generals caused the downfall of Rome's Republic. When Caesar finally took Rome for himself, he was greeted with thunderous applause, because he, at long last, promised, and even delivered, reforms the Roman people had wanted since the Gracchi.

The legions of Rome physically dismantled the Republic, but it was the Senate that set up a world where such a thing could happen as the citizens looked on and cheered.

Footnotes

1. ^  Fagan, Garrett G. (Lecturer/Professor) (2003). History of Ancient Rome, "Lecture 38: Roman Slavery" [CD Lecture series]. In association with The Teaching Company.

Figures of the Republic

Early Republic

• Lucretia
• Lucius Junius Brutus
• Cincinnatus
• Appius Claudius the Censor
• Samnite wars
• Punic wars, Carthage, Hannibal and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major
• Scipio Aemilianus
• Cato the Censor
• Macedonian wars

Lucretia Death of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli Lucretia is a mythical figure in the history of the Roman Republic. ... Lucius Iunius Brutus Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC. Prior to his election, Rome had been ruled by kings. ... With one hand he returns the fasces, symbol of power as appointed dictator of Rome. ... Appius Claudius Caecus (Appius Claudius the Blind, c. ... The Samnite Wars were three wars between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium. ... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... For other uses, see Hannibal (disambiguation). ... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS) (236 - 183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Storybook illustration depicting Scipio as the reluctant servant of the Senate as he orchestrated the genocide of the Carthaginians. ... Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO¹) (234 BC, Tusculum — 149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed The Censor, Sapiens, Priscus, or Major (the Elder), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ... The Macedonian Wars were a series of four wars between ancient Rome, its allies, and Macedon. ...

Late Republic

• Ahenobarbus family
• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
• Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla
• Spartacus and Marcus Licinius Crassus
• Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
• Prominent assassins of Julius Caesar: Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus
• Marcus Tullius Cicero
• Octavian and Mark Antony

Ahenobarbus (brazen-bearded or red-haired) is the name of a plebeian Roman family of the gens Domitia. ... Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (163 BC-132 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. In his short life he caused a political turmoil in the Republic, by his attempts, as plebeian tribune, to legislate agrarian reforms. ... Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (154 BC-121 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. He was the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus and, like him, pursued a popular political agenda that eventually got him killed by the conservative faction of... Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC — January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ... Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson // Early years Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. ... Kirk Douglas in the title role of the 1960 film Spartacus. ... Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives (Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS·DIVES¹) (ca. ... Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ... Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... Gaius Cassius Longinus (Before 85 BC – October, 42 BC) was a Roman senator and the prime mover in the conspiracy against Julius Caesar. ... Marcus Junius Brutus Caepio (85 BC – 42 BC), or simply Brutus, was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. ... Marcus Tullius Cicero (standard English pronunciation ; Classical Latin pronunciation ) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ...

Latin literature of the Republic

• Gaius Julius Caesar
• Catullus
• Cicero
• Ennius
• Fabius Pictor
• Livius Andronicus
• Lucretius
• Naevius
• Plautus
• Terence

Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca. ... Marcus Tullius Cicero (standard English pronunciation ; Classical Latin pronunciation ) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. ... Quintus Ennius (239 - 169 BC) was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. ... Quintus Fabius Pictor (c. ... Lucius Livius Andronicus (284-204 BC), was a Greek who became a Roman Dramatist and epic Poet, who gave Romans their first chance to read Greek classics in their own language. ... Lucretius Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. ... Naevius was the nomen for the plebeian gens Naevia of ancient Rome. ... Titus Maccius Plautus (born at Sarsina, Umbria in 254 B.C.) was a comic playwright in the time of the Roman Republic. ... Publius Terentius Afer, better known as Terence, was a comic playwright of the Roman Republic. ...

Tourist resorts of the Republic

• Baiae
• Capri
• Naples
• Pompeii

Baiae (Italian: Baia), in the Campania region of Italy on the Bay of Naples, today a frazione of the comune of Bacoli, was for several hundred years a fashionable and luxurious coastal resort, especially towards the end of the period of the Roman Republic. ... The island of Capri near Naples, Italy. ... Naples panorama Naples (Italian Napoli, Neapolitan Napule, from Greek Νέα Πόλις - Néa Pólis - meaning New City; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is the largest city in southern Italy and capital of Campania Region and the Province of Naples. ... Pompeii is a ruined Roman city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania. ...

See also

• List of Ancient Rome-related topics

History - Ancient history - Ancient Rome This is a List of Ancient Rome-related topics, that aims to include aspects of both the Ancient Roman Republic and Roman Empire. ...

References

• "The conquest of Gaul" by Gaius Julius Caesar ISBN 0-140-44433-5
• Harriet I. Flower (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge 2004.
• "The Cambridge Ancient History", vols. 7-9, Cambridge 1990ff.
• "The Enemies of Rome" by Philip Matyszak edited by Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-25124-X
• "Rubicon : the last years of the Roman Republic" by Tom Holland edited by Doubleday ISBN 0-385-50313-X
• "Caesar's Legion" by Stephen Dando-Collins edited by John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0-471-09570-2
• "Nero's Killing Machine" by Stephen Dando-Collins edited by John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0-471-67501-6
• "The Complete Roman Army" by Adrian Goldsworthy edited by Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-05124-0
• "Scipio Africanus - Greater than Napoleon" by B. H. Liddell Hart published by DA CAPO Press ISBN 0-306-81363-7
• "The Roman Army" by Peter Connolly

Bust of Julius Caesar This article is about Julius Caesar the Roman dictator. ... Tom Holland was born on July 11th, 1943 in Phoughkeepsie, New York, USA. He has directed five movies including: Childs Play Fright Night External Links Tom Holland at the Internet Movie Database Categories: Movie stubs ... Stephen Dando-Collins is an Australian historical novelist with novels centered around the Antiquity. ... Stephen Dando-Collins is an Australian historical novelist with novels centered around the Antiquity. ... Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969) is a British historian and military writer. ... Basil Henry Liddell Hart (October 31, 1895 _ January 29, 1970) was a military historian and is considered among the great military strategists of the 20th century. ... Peter Connolly (born 1935) is a renowned British scholar of the ancient world, Greek and Roman military equipment historian and artist. ...

External links

• Grout, James: Encyclopaedia Romana
• The Gracchi Marius and Sulla by A.H. Beesley
• www.roman-empire.net, about the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire
• The Roman Republic from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)
• www.unrv.com

In Our Time is a discussion programme hosted by Melvyn Bragg on BBC Radio 4 in Great Britain. ... The history of Rome spans 2,800 years of the existence of a city that grew from a small Italian village in the 9th century BC into the center of a vast civilization that dominated the Mediterranean region for centuries, but was eventually overrun by Germanic tribes, marking the beginning... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... An Italian poster from World War II using the Romulus and Remus myth: the wolf is tearing apart a Union Jack to encourage Italians to buy war bonds The founding of Rome is reported by many legends, which in recent times are beginning to be supplemented by more scientific reconstructions. ... King of Rome redirects here. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Romulus Augustus, the last of the Western Roman Emperors. ...