Marked by a highly developed pure science and innovation at the theoretical level, interpretation and application fell short. Biology, chemistry, materials science, mathematics, and physics, were fields in which Soviet citizens have excelled. Science was emphasized at all levels of education, and very large numbers of engineers graduated every year. Shortfalls in science and technology can be attributed to a centrally planned and controlled economy and to priority given to national security, all of which provided little incentive to design and create prototypes of products for mass market. Without orders from central government, no product design and prototype saw fruition or stimulated innovation of other products. The Soviet government, in many cases, has chosen to adopt foreign technology rather than invest money, talent and time to develop the Soviet Union's indigenous technological capacity.

• Initial pact between scientists and Vladimir Lenin in the early days, on the importance of science and science working for the state
• Funding mechanisms for science directed entirely through the state
• Early-Soviet funding of pre-Revolutionary scientists who had prestige even if they didn't agree with Soviet policies (Pavlov)
• Stalin's rise to power and the imposition of harsh philosophical codes onto science
• Brief paragraph on Sharashka system.
• Dialectical materialism as the Soviet philosophy of science
• Emphasis on the "practicality" of science/anti-theoretical attacks which are seen in an extreme form in Lysenkoism but exist in other forms throughout the sciences (chemistry advertises itself as a fully "practical" and "industrial" science after Lysenkoism in order to avoid any problems, for example)
• Lysenkoism
• Fears of Lysenkoism and the creation of false "founding father" biographies of past scientists, to avoid being accused of being bourgeoisie
• Suppressed science (cybernetics, Vygotsky, etc)
• Soviet coordination and funding of state military technological projects (atomic bomb, rockets)
• Atomic bomb, espionage, parallelism
• Sputnik, space program
• Soviet computers
• Soviet scientists and dissidence (Sahkarov)
• Soviet-Western scientific exchanges and tensions
• Fall of the Soviet Union = political freedom for scientists, but no money for science

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин   listen?), original surname Ulyanov (Улья́нов) (April 22 (April 10 (O.S.)), 1870 – January 21, 1924), was a Russian revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik party, the first Premier of the Soviet Union, and the founder of the ideology of Leninism, later expanded into Marxism-Leninism by Joseph... Dialectical materialism is the philosophical basis of Marxism as defined by later Communists and their Parties (sometimes called orthodox Marxism). ... Lysenko speaking at the Kremlin in 1935. ... Research in Soviet Union in science and humanities from the very beginning was under a strict ideological scrutiny, together with art, literature, education and all other domains of human culture. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... Sputnik 1 The Sputnik program was a series of unmanned space missions launched by the Soviet Union in the late 1950s to demonstrate the viability of artificial satellites. ...

NII

A large part of research was conducted in NIIs — "scientific research institutions" (Russian: НИИ, нау́чно-иссле́довательский институ́т). There have been a great number of NIIs, each specialized in a particular field. The overall efficiency of NIIs was quite low.

References

• Loren Graham What Have We Learned About Science and Technology from the Russian Experience and Science and Technology in Russia and the Soviet Union
• This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. - Soviet Union

The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA), freely available for use by researchers. ...

Related articles

• Suppressed research in the Soviet Union
• Sharashka