In a parliamentary or semi-presidential system of government, a reserve power is a power that may be exercised by the head of state without the approval of another branch of the government. Unlike a presidential system of government, the head of state is generally constrained by the cabinet or the legislature, and most reserve powers are usable only in certain exceptional circumstances. The reserve powers of the President of Ireland are called discretionary powers. A parliamentary system, or parliamentarism, is distinguished by the executive branch of government being dependent on the direct or indirect support of the parliament, often expressed through a vote of confidence. ... The semi-presidential system is a system of government that features both a prime minister and a president who are active participants in the day to day functioning of government. ... For the comedy film of the same name, see Head of State (film). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of government, typically representing the executive branch. ... A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... -1...

Reserve powers should not be confused with reserved powers, a term used, 1) in the United States, which sources to the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, under which all powers that are not delegated to the U.S. government by the U.S. Constitution are "reserved to the states, or to the people"; and, 2) in the United Kingdom, to denote powers not devolved to the parliament and assemblies of the Home Nations. A reserve power is a power that may be exercised by the head of state of a country in certain exceptional circumstances. ... For Ireland, see Tenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: The United States Constitution The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ...

The President of the United States does have what might otherwise be termed "reserve powers", in that he may exercise certain powers without consulting the Congress or the Judiciary - but the term "reserve powers" generally is not used. Instead, there are various terms, each of which expresses the nature of the power—such as "recess appointment power" (when the President makes appointments during a Congressional recess) and "executive prerogative" (as when the President creates a national landmark or pardons an individual convicted of a crime). All powers exercised by the U.S. President, whatever they may be labeled, must source to some provision of the U.S. Constitution. Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      For other uses, see President of the United States (disambiguation). ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate President pro tempore Dick Cheney, (R) since January 20, 2001 Robert C. Byrd, (D) since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political... Federal courts Supreme Court Circuit Courts of Appeal District Courts Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures (List) State Courts Local Government Other countries Atlas  US Government Portal      The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the...

Constitutional monarchies

Heads of state in countries with either an uncodified and partly unwritten constitution (such as the United Kingdom) or a wholly written constitution that consists of a text augmented by additional conventions, traditions, Letters Patent, etc. (such as the Commonwealth of Australia) generally have reserve powers.

Typically these powers are:

1. to dismiss a Prime Minister;
2. to refuse to dissolve Parliament;
3. to refuse or delay the Royal Assent to legislation. To withhold the Royal Assent amounts to a veto of a Bill. To reserve the Royal Assent in effect amounts to a decision neither to grant or refuse a dissolution, but to delay taking a decision for an undetermined period of time. In Australia, Royal Assent can also be reserved by the Governor-General in order for the Queen to sign a Bill into law - this is 'reserving the Bill for Her Majesty's pleasure'.

There are usually strict constitutional conventions concerning when these powers may be used, and these conventions are enforced by public pressure. Using these powers in contravention of tradition would generally provoke a constitutional crisis. A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modelled after that of the United Kingdom. ... // The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A constitutional crisis is a severe breakdown in the smooth operation of government. ...

Some political scientists believe that reserve powers are a good thing in that they allow for a government to handle an unforeseen crisis and that the use of convention to limit the use of reserve powers allows for more gradual and subtle constitutional evolution than is possible through formal amendment of a written constitution. Others believe that reserve powers are vestigial and potentially dangerous parts of a constitution.

Reserve powers often originate in situations in which the head of state begins with vast discretionary powers which over time become more difficult to execute in practice without provoking a constitutional crisis. As a society becomes more democratic, conventions and limitations on the power of the head of state become increasingly established and constitutional evolution occurs by establishing conventions rather than by formal amendment of the constitution. As a result, reserve powers often exist in the context of constitutional monarchies.

The Commonwealth of Nations

Within the Commonwealth realms (or dominions) until the 1920s, most reserve powers were exercised by a governor-general, on the advice of the British government, normally in the form of written instructions issued to him or her when they took office. After a 1927 Commonwealth conference decision, however, the governors-general were no longer advised by the British government, but rather, by that of each individual state. A Commonwealth Realm is any one of the 16 sovereign states that recognize Queen Elizabeth II as their Queen and head of state. ... This is a page about Dominions of the British Empire/Commonwealth. ... Governor-General (or Governor General) is a term used both historically and currently to designate the appointed representative of a head of state or their government for a particular territory, historically in a colonial context, but no longer necessarily in that form. ...

For example, the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State, Tim Healy was instructed by the British Dominions Office in 1922 to withhold the Royal Assent on any Bill passed by the two houses of Oireachtas Éireann (the Irish parliament) that attempted to change or abolish the Oath of Allegiance. However no such Bill was introduced during Healy's period in office (1922-1928). By the time the Oath was abolished, some years later, the Irish Governor-General was formally advised exclusively by the Irish government. The Governor-General (Irish: Seanascal) was the representative of the King in the 1922–1937 Irish Free State. ... Timothy Michael Healy Timothy Michael Healy, KC (May 17, 1855–March 26, 1931) was one of the most brilliant and most controversial of Irish politicians, with a career that spanned the period from Charles Stewart Parnells leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party in the 1880s to the foundation of... The Oireachtas is the National Parliament of the Republic of Ireland1. ... The Irish Oath of Allegiance was a controversial provision in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which Irish TDs (members of the Irish parliament) and Senators were required to take, in order to take their seats in Dáil Éireann (The Chamber of Deputies) and Seanad Éireann (the Irish Senate). ...

The United Kingdom

In the UK, the Queen (or King, when there is a male monarch) has numerous theoretical personal prerogatives. In practice, however, with the exception of the appointment of a prime minister, which is done with every prime minister, there are few circumstances in modern British government where these could be justifiably exercised; they have rarely been exercised in the last century. The monarch's personal prerogatives are:

1. The refusal to dissolve Parliament when requested by the Prime Minister. This was last reputedly considered in 1910 (but George V later changed his mind) ^{[citation needed]};
2. To appoint a Prime Minister of her own choosing. This was last done in Britain in 1963 when Elizabeth II appointed Sir Alec Douglas-Home as Prime Minister.
3. The dismissal of a Prime Minister and his Government on the Monarch's own authority. This was last done in Britain in 1834 by King William IV; and
4. The refusal of the Royal Assent, last exercised in 1708 by Queen Anne when she withheld Royal Assent from the Scottish Militia Bill 1708
5. The refusal of the "Queen's Consent," where direct monarchical assent is required for a bill affecting, directly or by implication, the prerogative, hereditary revenues—including ultimus haeres, treasure trove, and bona vacantia—or the personal property or interests of the Crown to be heard in Parliament. In 1999, Queen Elizabeth II, acting on the advice of the government, refused to signify her consent to the Military Action Against Iraq (Parliamentary Approval) Bill, which sought to transfer from the monarch to Parliament the power to authorize military strikes against Iraq.

These powers could be exercised in an emergency such as a constitutional crisis (such as surrounded the People's Budget of 1909), or in wartime. They would also be very relevant during a hung parliament. George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 1865 – 20 January 1936) was the first British monarch belonging to the House of Windsor, which he created from the British branch of the German House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. ... Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary [1]; born 21 April 1926) is Queen of sixteen sovereign states, and their respective overseas territories and dependencies. ... Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home, Baron Home of the Hirsel KT1 (July 2, 1903 - October 9, 1995), known from 1951 to 1963 as the 14th Earl of Home, was a British politician, and served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for a year from October 1963 to October 1964. ... William IV King of the United Kingdom William IV (William Henry) (21 August 1765–20 June 1837) was King of the United Kingdom and of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. ... // The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. ... // Events March 23 - James Francis Edward Stuart lands at the Firth of Forth July 1 - Tewoflos becomes Emperor of Ethiopia September 28 - Peter the Great defeats the Swedes at the Battle of Lesnaya Kandahar conquered by Mir Wais In Masuria one third of the population die during the plague J... The term Queen Anne, when applied to a style of furniture or architecture, refers to the only British monarch of the name, Anne, who reigned between 1702 and 1714. ... The Scottish Militia Bill is the usual name given to a bill that was passed by the House of Commons and House of Lords of the Parliament of Great Britain in spring 1708, but vetoed by Queen Anne for fear that the proposed militia created would be disloyal. ... Ultimus haeres (Latin for ultimate heir) is a concept in Scots law where if a person in Scotland who dies without leaving a will (i. ... A treasure-trove is gold, silver, gems, money, jewellery, etc found hidden under ground or in cellar or attics, etc. ... Bona vacantia (Latin for vacant goods) is a common law doctrine in the United Kingdom under which ownerless property passes by law to the Crown. ... Elizabeth II in an official portrait as Queen of Canada (on the occasion of her Golden Jubilee in 2002, wearing the Sovereigns badges of the Order of Canada and the Order of Military Merit) Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary) (born 21 April 1926), styled HM The... The Military Action Against Iraq (Parliamentary Approval) Bill was a private members bill introduced into the British House of Commons on 26 January 1999 by Tam Dalyell MP under the ten minute rule. ... The Peoples Budget was proposed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George in 1909, and was a key issue of contention between the Liberal government and the House of Lords, ultimately leading to two general elections in 1910 and the enactment of the Parliament Act 1911. ... In Parliamentary systems, a hung parliament is one in which no one political party has an outright majority. ...

For example, in the most recent hung parliament in 1974, the serving Prime Minister Edward Heath attempted to remain in power but was unable to form a working majority. The Queen then asked Harold Wilson, leader of the Labour Party, which had the largest number of seats in the Commons but not a majority, to attempt to form a government with the support of the Liberals). Wilson agreed, on condition that, if the arrangement with the Liberals broke down, the Queen would dissolve parliament and call a new election, rather than give the Liberals the opportunity to offer their support to, or even form a coalition government with, the Conservatives. The Queen agreed, and Wilson formed a Labour government. The Queen used (or agreed to use) several of her prerogative powers in order to break the deadlock. Sir Edward Richard George Heath, KG, OBE (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1974 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 to 1975. ... Working majority describes a parliamentary majority large enough to govern effectively without the danger of losing a vote of no confidence. ... James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, PC (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was one of the most prominent British politicians of the 20th century. ... In politics, the term liberal refers to: an adherent of the ideology of liberalism or a state or quality of this ideology. ... The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is the second largest political party in the United Kingdom in terms of sitting Members of Parliament (MPs), the largest in terms of public membership, and the oldest political party in the United Kingdom. ...

The Commonwealth of Australia

The Queen's personal prerogatives can be quite distinct from those of her Governors-General, who are with exercising her functions and powers on her behalf in a particular Commonwealth realm. The powers of the Governor-General almost invariably derive from a written constitution, so it is not correct to speak of a Governor-General exercising the Royal prerogative. Governor-General (or Governor General) is a term used both historically and currently to designate the appointed representative of a head of state or their government for a particular territory, historically in a colonial context, but no longer necessarily in that form. ... The Commonwealth Realms, shown in pink A Commonwealth Realm is any one of the sixteen sovereign states within the Commonwealth of Nations that recognise Elizabeth II as their respective monarch. ... The Royal Prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege, and immunity, recognised in common law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy as belonging to the Crown alone. ...

In 1953, prior to Queen Elizabeth II's first royal visit (also the first visit to Australia by its reigning monarch), it was planned for her to take part in various formal processes of her Australian government. However, the government's legal advisors discovered that the Constitution of Australia vested all of the Queen's statutory powers in the office of her Governor-General, with the exception of the power to appoint the Governor-General himself. The Royal Powers Act 1953 was passed in order to address this anomaly, and enabled the Queen, when she was personally present in Australia, to exercise any power defined in an Act of the Australian parliament that is exercisable by her Governor-General.[1] Year 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia, in 1952 and 2002 The title Queen of Australia has existed since 1973, when the Parliament of Australia passed the Royal Style and Titles Act (1973). ... Judicial High Court Lower Courts Constitution State and territory governments Executive Governors and Administrators Premiers and Chief Ministers Legislative Parliaments and Assemblies State electoral systems ACT - NSW - NT - Qld. ...

While the reserve power to dismiss a government has not been used in the United Kingdom since 1834, this power has been exercised more recently in Australia, on two occasions:

1. On 13th May 1932, when New South Wales Governor Sir Philip Game dismissed the Government of New South Wales.
2. On 11th November 1975, when the Australian Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Commonwealth Government.

In both cases an election was held very soon afterwards and, again in both cases, the dismissed government was massively defeated by popular vote. (Redirected from 13th May) May 13 is the 133rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (134th in leap years). ... Year 1932 (MCMXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1932 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... “NSW” redirects here. ... the flag of the Governor of New South Wales The Governor of New South Wales is the representative in the Australian state of New South Wales of Australias head of state, Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. ... Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Woolcott Game (March 30, 1876–February 4, 1961) was a British Royal Air Force commander and Governor of New South Wales, Australia. ... The form of the Government of New South Wales is prescribed in its Constitution, which dates from 1856, although it has been amended many times since then. ... (Redirected from 11th November) November 11 is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 50 days remaining. ... Year 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Sir John Robert Kerr, AK, GCMG, GCVO (24 September 1914 – 24 March 1991), 13th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and 18th Governor-General of Australia, dismissed the Labor government of Gough Whitlam on 11 November 1975, marking the climax of one of the most significant... The secretary of the Governor-General, David Smith, announcing the dissolution of Parliament on November 11th, 1975. ... This article is about the political process. ...

Belgium

In Belgium a constitutional provision explicitly states that no act of the Monarch is valid without the signature of (a) member(s) of the government, which thereby becomes solely responsible, hence excluding any reserve power for the crown. In legal terminology, a competence vested in 'the King' thus very often means the government, as opposed to formal laws which require a (sometimes qualified) parliamentary majority.

Constitutional precedence has even established the unwritten but binding rule that the Monarch must give assent to any parliamentary decision, regardless of any other considerations (which can only be advanced in private audience with government members, not imposed), as soon as the government presents it for royal signature and thus assumes full political responsibility. In 1990, when a law liberalizing Belgium's abortion laws was approved by parliament, King Baudouin refused to give his Royal Assent, only the second time in Belgium's history the monarch elected to do so. The cabinet declared him unable to reign for a day and, conforming to the Belgian Constitution's provision that, if the king is incapable of reigning, the government as a whole (not a Regent) will fulfill the role of Head of state, all members of the government signed the bill, passing it into law. The government declared that Baudouin was capable of reigning again the next day. Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Baudouin I, King of the Belgians, (Baudouin/Boudewijn Albert Charles Léopold Axel Marie Gustave) (7 September 1930 – 31 July 1993), reigned as King of the Belgians from 1951 to 1993. ... // The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. ... Politics of Belgium takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the King of the Belgians is the Head of State and the Prime Minister of Belgium is the head of government in a pluriform multi-party system. ... For the comedy film of the same name, see Head of State (film). ...

Japan

Following Japan's defeat in World War II, the emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan. It states that the sovereignty of Japan rests with the people (not the emperor), and that the emperor is merely the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Unlike other constitutional monarchs, the emperor of Japan has no reserve powers. Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... For the CPR ocean liner, see Empress of Japan. ... The Constitution of Japan ) has been the founding legal document of Japan since 1946. ...

Republics

Reserve powers can also be written into a republican constitution that separates the offices of Head of State and Head of Government. This was the case in Germany under the Weimar Republic, and is still the case in the French Fifth Republic and the Italian republic. Reserve powers may include, for instance, the right to issue emergency legislation or regulation bypassing the normal processes. In most states, the head of state's ability to exercise reserve powers is explicitly defined and regulated by the text of the constitution. For the comedy film of the same name, see Head of State (film). ... The head of government is the chief officer of the executive branch of a government, often presiding over a cabinet. ... Anthem Das Lied der Deutschen Germany during the Weimar period, with the Free State of Prussia (in blue) as the largest state Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President  - 1918-1925 Friedrich Ebert  - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor  - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann(first)  - 1933 Kurt von Schleicher (last) Legislature... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

France

Article 16 of the Constitution of France allows the President of the Republic to exercise exceptional powers in case of a national emergency. During this time, the President may not use his prerogative to dissolve the National Assembly and call early elections. He must still consult the Prime Minister, the leaders of both houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council. The President of France, known officially as the President of the Republic (Président de la République in French), is Frances elected Head of State. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box:      The National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. ... A republican guard giving directions to visitors at the front entrance of the Constitutional Council The Constitutional Council (Conseil Constitutionnel) was established by the Constitution of the Fifth Republic on 4 October 1958. ...

The inspiration for this disposition in the Constitution was the institutional chaos and lack of government authority which contributed to the French debacle in the Battle of France in 1940. On a larger scale, this is consistent with a tradition of the Roman Republic (which has always been an inspiration for the successive French Republics), to give six months of dictatorial power to a citizen in case of an imminent danger of invasion. Combatants  France  United Kingdom  Canada  Czechoslovakia  Poland  Belgium  Netherlands  Luxembourg Germany Italy Commanders Maurice Gamelin, Maxime Weygand Lord Gort (British Expeditionary Force) Leopold III H.G. Winkelman Gerd von Rundstedt (Army Group A) Fedor von Bock (Army Group B) Wilhelm von Leeb (Army Group C) H.R.H. Umberto di... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article refers to the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For alternate meanings, see Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ...

Article 16 rule has only been exercised once, in 1961, during a crisis related to the Algerian War in which Charles De Gaulle needed those emergency powers to foil a military plot to take over the government. In 1962, the Council of State ruled itself incompetent to judge measures of a legislative nature issued by the President under Article 16. Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Combatants FLN (1954-62) MNA (1954-62) France (1954-62) FAF (1960-61) OAS (1961-62) Commanders Mostefa Benboulaïd Ferhat Abbas Hocine Aït Ahmed Ahmed Ben Bella Krim Belkacem Larbi Ben MHidi Rabah Bitat Mohamed Boudiaf Messali Hadj Jacques Massu Maurice Challe Said Boualam Pierre Lagaillarde Raoul... For other uses, see Charles de Gaulle (disambiguation). ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... In France, the Conseil dÉtat (English: Council of State and sometimes Counsel of State) is an organ of the French national government. ...

In his book, Le Coup d'État permanent (The Permanent Coup), François Mitterrand criticized Article 16 for allowing an ambitious politician the opportunity to become a dictator. However, he made no move to put away his reserve powers after he himself became President. // A coup dÉtat (pronounced ), or simply coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, often through illegal means by a part of the state establishment — mostly replacing just the high-level figures. ...   IPA: (October 26, 1916 – January 8, 1996) served as President of France from 1981 to 1995, elected as representative of the Socialist Party (PS). ...

Germany

The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany strictly limits the reserve powers available to the President to prevent the situation in which the executive could effectively rule without legislative approval, which was the case in the Weimar Republic. In particular, he cannot rule by decree and he can only dissolve the Bundestag (parliament) if the Chancellor loses a motion of confidence and asks the President to do so. The Basic Law (German: Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is the constitution[1] of Germany. ... Anthem Das Lied der Deutschen Germany during the Weimar period, with the Free State of Prussia (in blue) as the largest state Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President  - 1918-1925 Friedrich Ebert  - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor  - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann(first)  - 1933 Kurt von Schleicher (last) Legislature... Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged creation of law by a single person or group, and is used primarily by dictators and absolute monarchs. ... Type Lower house President of the Bundestag Dr. Norbert Lammert, CDU since October 18, 2005 Members 614 Political groups (as of September 18, 2005 elections) Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union of Bavaria Bloc (226), Social Democratic Party of Germany (222), Free Democratic Party (61), The Left Party. ... A Motion of Confidence is a motion of support proposed by a government in a parliament or other assembly of elected representatives to give members of parliament (or other such assembly) a chance to register their confidence in a government. ...

The German President has exercised this right three times since the founding of the Federal Republic in 1949. President Gustav Heinemann dissolved the Bundestag at the request of Chancellor Willy Brandt in 1972 and in 1982, President Karl Carstens did so at the request of Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Both Brandt and Kohl were reelected with larger majorities. Most recently, on July 1, 2005, President Horst Köhler dissolved the Bundestag at the request of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. Schröder expectedly lost the election that followed and thus made way for a new government. Gustav Walter Heinemann (July 23, 1899 - July 7, 1976) was a German politician. ... Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (December 18, 1913 - October 8, 1992), was a German politician, Chancellor of West Germany 1969 – 1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964 – 1987. ... Karl Carstens (December 14, 1914 - May 30, 1992) was a German politician. ... Helmut Josef Michael Kohl (born April 3, 1930) is a German conservative politician and statesman. ... is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. Horst Köhler ( , born 22 February 1943) is the current President of Germany. ...   [] (born April 7, 1944), German politician, was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005. ... German federal elections took place on September 18, 2005 to elect the members of the 16th German Bundestag, the federal parliament of Germany. ...

The wide use of sweeping reserve powers by Adolf Hitler, given to him by the frail and doting President Paul von Hindenburg, has often been cited as an important factor in the failure of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s. Hitler redirects here. ... Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, known universally as Paul von Hindenburg (2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman. ... Anthem Das Lied der Deutschen Germany during the Weimar period, with the Free State of Prussia (in blue) as the largest state Capital Berlin Language(s) German Government Republic President  - 1918-1925 Friedrich Ebert  - 1925-1933 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor  - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann(first)  - 1933 Kurt von Schleicher (last) Legislature... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazism, or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), refers primarily to the totalitarian ideology and practices of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers Party, German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) under Adolf Hitler. ...

Italy

The President of the Italian Republic's powers are defined by articles 87 through 90 of the Constitution of Italy. The President: The President of the Italian Republic is the head of State of Italy, and represents national unity. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

• Can send official messages to the chambers of the Italian Parliament;
• Calls for elections;
• Has the command of the armed forces and is responsible for declaring the state of war;
• Is also the President of the High Council of Courts (Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura), the self-government body of the Italian judicial system;
• Can grant pardons and reduce sentences;
• Can call for new elections for both or only one of the chambers, except during the last six months of his term;
• Is not responsible of any actions undertaken while serving his functions, except for high treason and plotting against the Constitution.

The president can refuse to sign laws he deems clearly against the Constitution, while less obvious cases are dealt later on by the constitutional court. If the rejected law gets again a majority in the Parliament, however, the President must sign it. The Parliament of Italy (Italian: Parlamento Italiano) is the national parliament of Italy. ... For other uses, see War (disambiguation). ... For the Breton religious festivals, see Pardon (ceremony). ... In law, a sentence forms the final act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. ... {{main|Treason}} High treason, broadly defined, is an action which is grossly disloyal to ones country or sovereign. ... A Constitutional Court is a high court found in many countries which deals primary with constitutional law. ...

Notes and references