The "Revolt of the Admirals" was a late 1940s episode during which several high-ranking officers of the United States Navy publicly disagreed with the United States government's plans for the military forces. The 1940s decade ran from 1940 to 1949. ... USN redirects here. ... The government of the United States, established by the United States Constitution, is a federal republic of 50 states, a few territories and some protectorates. ...

Background

The debate that caused the "Revolt" had been building for several years, but climaxed in 1949 when many of those officers, including Chief of Naval Operations Louis E. Denfeld as well as Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan, were either fired or forced to resign. 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the senior military officer in the United States Navy. ... Louis Emil Denfeld (1891-1972), was Chief of Naval Operations of the United States Navy from 15 December 1947 to 1 November 1949. ... Flag of the United States Secretary of the Navy. ... John L. Sullivan (June 16, 1899–August 8, 1982), Served in the United States Navy and was the first Department of Defense Secretary of the Navy in the Truman Administration. ...

In November 1943, General George C. Marshall called for postwar unification of the Department of War and the Department of the Navy. His action led to what became known as the “unification debates” and the eventual passage of the National Security Act of 1947. That Act created a unified National Military Establishment, a National Security Council (NSC), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and an independent United States Air Force. 1943 (MCMXLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1943 calendar). ... George C. Marshall George Catlett Marshall (December 31, 1880–October 16, 1959), an American military leader and statesman, was born into a middle-class family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. ... Line drawing of the Department of Wars seal. ... Seal The United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on April 30, 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and Marine Corps. ... The National Security Act of 1947 signed July 26, 1947 by U.S. President Harry S. Truman realigned and reorganized the United States armed forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community apparatus in the aftermath of World War II. It merged the United States Department of War and the United States... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... Aircraft of the 379th Air Expeditionary Wing and coalition counterparts stationed together at Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, in southwest Asia, fly over the desert. ...

The generals of the newly-formed Air Force proposed the doctrine that strategic bombing, particularly with nuclear weapons, was all that would be needed to win any future war. To support such a doctrine, the Air Force would need to build a large fleet of long-range heavy bombers; the generals argued that their projects should receive large amounts of funding, beginning with the B-36 Peacemaker bomber. Doctrine, from Latin doctrina, (compare doctor), means a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. ... The remains of German town of Wesel after intensive Allied area bombing in 1945 (destruction rate 98 % of all buildings) // Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war style campaign that attempts to destroy the economic ability of a nation-state to wage war. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter. ... A bomber is a military aircraft designed to attack ground targets, primarily by dropping bombs. ... The Convair (Consolidated Vultee) B-36 was a strategic bomber operated by the United States Air Force, the first to have truly intercontinental range. ...

The admirals of the Navy disagreed. Pointing to the overwhelming dominance of the aircraft carrier in the war in the Pacific, they asked the United States Congress to fund a large fleet of "supercarriers" and their supporting battle groups, beginning with USS United States (CVA-58). Wars could not be won by strategic bombing alone, they maintained, and to decide that any future war would only be fought with widespread use of nuclear weapons was "immoral" – though United States was designed to support 100,000-pound aircraft, which would be large enough to carry the multi-ton nuclear bombs of the day. The plans for the United States-class called for eight ships carrying ten heavy bombers each and enough aviation fuel for eight raids per plane, allowing them to drop 640 nuclear weapons before resupply became necessary. Four aircraft carriers, Principe-de-Asturias, USS Wasp, USS Forrestal and HMS Invincible (front-to-back), showing the difference in size between a supercarrier, light V/STOL carriers, and an amphibious carrier. ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate Dick Cheney, R, since January 20, 2001 Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert, R, since January 6, 1999 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups (as of January 4, 2005 elections) Democratic Party Republican Party... USS , a typical supercarrier, and HMS Illustrious, a light V/STOL aircraft carrier on a joint patrol. ... USS United States (CVA-58), the third ship of the US Navy named for its nation, was to be the lead ship of a radical new design of aircraft carrier. ...

Cancellation of USS United States

USS United States, pictured in drydock with her keel laid. The cancellation of USS United States and her sister ships were the major factor in the "Revolt of the Admirals"

The first Secretary of Defense, former Navy Secretary James V. Forrestal, supported the Naval position and authorized construction of United States. However, he had to resign for reasons of health on 28 March 1949 and was replaced by Louis A. Johnson, who supported the Air Force's position. Despite this, he was universally disliked by those in uniform, who believed that he knew nothing about military matters. On 23 April—less than a month after taking office, and without consulting Congress—Johnson ordered cancellation of United States. Secretary Sullivan and a number of high-ranking admirals resigned in protest. A few days later, Secretary Johnson announced that the Marine Corps's aviation assets would be transferred to the Air Force; this plan was quietly dropped in response to an uproar in Congress. The Navy's aircraft carriers were roundly disliked by the Air Force, as they were an aviation asset which the Air Force could not control, and Secretary Johnson, who was a staunch proponent of the new Air Force, consequently sought to limit as much as possible the Navy's procurement of these ships. USS United States -- actual File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... USS United States -- actual File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The United States Secretary of Defense is the head of the United States Department of Defense (DoD), concerned with the armed services and The role of the Secretary of Defense is to be the principal defense policy advisor to the President and is responsible for the formulation of general defense... James Vincent Forrestal (February 15, 1892 – May 22, 1949) was a Secretary of the Navy and the first United States Secretary of Defense (September 17, 1947–March 28, 1949). ... March 28 is the 87th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (88th in leap years). ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... Louis Arthur Johnson (January 10, 1891 - April 24, 1966) was the second United States Secretary of Defense, serving in the cabinet of President Harry S. Truman from March 28, 1949 to September 19, 1950. ... Aircraft of the 379th Air Expeditionary Wing and coalition counterparts stationed together at Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, in southwest Asia, fly over the desert. ... April 23 is the 113th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (114th in leap years). ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate Dick Cheney, R, since January 20, 2001 Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert, R, since January 6, 1999 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups (as of January 4, 2005 elections) Democratic Party Republican Party... The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the U.S. military responsible for providing power projection from the sea,[1] utilizing the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces to global crises. ...

A research group, Op-23, headed by Captain Arleigh A. Burke, began to gather material critical of the B-36's performance and capabilities. An "anonymous document" soon appeared, claiming that the B-36 was a "billion-dollar blunder" and alleging fraud on the part of B-36 contractors, specifically that Secretary Johnson, who had been on the board of directors of Consolidated Vultee, manufacturer of the bomber, had a personal interest in its production. Admiral Arleigh Burke in 1951 Arleigh Albert Burke (October 19, 1901 _ January 1, 1996), an Admiral of the United States Navy during World War II and the Korean War, was born far from the sea in Boulder, Colorado. ... In relation to a company, a director is an officer of the company charged with the conduct and management of its affairs. ... The Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation, universally known as Convair, was the result of a 1943 merger between Consolidated Aircraft and Vultee Aircraft, resulting in a leading aircraft manufacturer of the United States. ...

The situation was further exacerbated by a series of articles for popular consumption written by Rear Admiral Daniel V. Gallery for The Saturday Evening Post. The final article, "Don't Let Them Scuttle the Navy!" was so inflammatory that Secretary of Defense Johnson wanted Gallery court-martialed for gross insubordination. Although Gallery was not court-martialed, the articles cost him his promotion to vice admiral and ultimately ended his career. The term Rear Admiral originated from the days of Naval Sailing Squadrons, and can trace its origins to the British Royal Navy. ... Daniel Vincent Gallery (1901–1977) was a captain in the United States Navy who fought in the Second Battle of the Atlantic during World War II. His most notable achievement was the capture of the German submarine, U-505, on June 4, 1944. ... A cover of the Saturday Evening Post from 1903 The Saturday Evening Post was a weekly magazine published in the United States from August 4, 1821 to February 8, 1969. ... A court-martial (plural courts-martial) is a military court that determines punishments for members of the military subject to military law. ... Vice Admiral is a naval rank of three star level, equivalent to Lieutenant General in seniority. ...

Result of Congressional hearings

In its final report, the House Armed Services Committee found no substance to the charges relating to Johnson's and his aide Stuart Symington's roles in aircraft procurement. It held that evaluation of the B-36's worth was the responsibility of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, and that the services jointly should not pass judgment on weapons proposed by one service. On cancellation of the supercarrier, the committee questioned the qualifications of the Army and Air Force chiefs of staff, who had testified in support of Johnson's decision, to determine vessels appropriate for the Navy. The committee, disapproving of Johnson's "summary manner" of terminating the carrier and his failure to consult congressional committees before acting, stated that "national defense is not strictly an executive department undertaking; it involves not only the Congress but the American people as a whole speaking through their Congress. The committee can in no way condone this manner of deciding public questions." William Stuart Symington William Stuart Symington (June 26, 1901–December 14, 1988) was a U.S. businessman and political figure. ... The Flag of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army The Chief of Staff of the United States Army (CSA) is the professional head of the United States Army who is responsible for insuring readiness of the Army. ... The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force (CSAF) serves as the senior uniformed United States Air Force officer responsible for the organization, training, and equipage of more than 700,000 active-duty, National Guard, Reserve, and civilian forces serving in the United States and overseas. ...

The author of the so-called "anonymous document" turned out to be Cedric R. Worth, civilian assistant to the Under-Secretary of the Navy. A House Investigating Committee recommended that Cedric Worth be fired. Following a naval court of inquiry, Worth was dismissed.

The committee expressed solid support for effective unification, but stated that "there is such a thing as seeking too much unification too fast" and observed that "there has been a Navy reluctance in the interservice marriage, an over-ardent Army, a somewhat exuberant Air Force… It may well be stated that the committee finds no unification Puritans in the Pentagon."

Finally, the committee condemned the dismissal of Admiral Denfeld. The House Armed Services Committee concluded that Denfeld's removal was a reprisal because of his testimony, and a challenge to effective representative government. The U.S. House Committee on Armed Services, commonly known as the House Armed Services Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives, the lower house of Congress. ...

Army General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, called the Navy admirals "'fancy dans' who won't hit the line with all they have on every play unless they can call the signals" who were in "open rebellion against the civilian control." This was as much for budgetary reasons as any other; the services were then in the middle of the post-World War II drawdown (which would continue into and past the Korean War era) and Army-Air Force thinking held that their life depended on securing as many missions for themselves as possible. Omar Nelson Bradley (February 12, 1893 – April 8, 1981) was one of the main U.S. Army field commanders in North Africa and Europe during World War II and a General of the Army of the United States Army. ... The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is by law the highest ranking military officer of the United States military, and the principal military advisor to the President of the United States. ... Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States of America symbol The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a grouping comprising the Chiefs of service of each major branch of the armed services in the United States armed forces. ... Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Nazi Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead... Combatants United Nations: Republic of Korea United States United Kingdom Canada Australia The Netherlands France Philippines Turkey Ethiopia Communist states: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea People’s Republic of China Soviet Union Commanders Syngman Rhee Chung Il Kwon Douglas MacArthur Mark W. Clark Matthew Ridgway Kim Il-sung Choi...

Aftermath of the cancellation of USS United States

After the cancellation of USS United States, Congress and the Navy began to contemplate the design of the next aircraft carrier, a process which sped up as the Korean War began. The new ship bore only a cursory resemblance to United States as construction began, and after her design was revised with the addition of an angled flight deck she bore even less resemblance. Eventually, the new design became USS Forrestal, first ship of a new class and a new type of aircraft carriers; fifty years of new carrier construction have followed Forrestal's lead. USS , a typical supercarrier, and HMS Illustrious, a light V/STOL aircraft carrier on a joint patrol Flight deck of USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) doing a high speed turn during her acceptance trials. ... USS Forrestal (CVA/CV/AVT-59) was a United States Navy aircraft carrier, the lead ship of her class of supercarriers, named after Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal. ... The Forrestal-class aircraft carriers were a four-ship class designed and built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. ... USS , a typical supercarrier, and HMS Illustrious, a light V/STOL aircraft carrier on a joint patrol. ...

Continuing effects

The "Revolt of the Admirals" opened the discussion, still ongoing, in the American military establishment about the role of nuclear weapons, strategic bombing, and the unification of military command. The first test of national doctrine came on 25 June 1950 when the Korean War broke out, and the national command authority decided that strategic bombing would not be used to defeat North Korea—rather, the use of ground forces, supported by naval gunfire and amphibious assault, would defeat the invasion. Although that limited war was dismissed as an aberration by supporters of the Air Force doctrine, scores of other smaller conflicts have since been fought without the use of strategic bombing. The idea of defeating an enemy with few or no American casualties continues to be a factor in the debate, as in Operation Desert Storm and Kosovo, although in the 21st century cruise missiles have replaced high-altitude bombing in the airpower role. The Korean War reinforced the lessons of the Second World War that held carriers to be a primary implement of American foreign policy, and shortly after the North Korean attack began, Secretary Johnson promised the Navy that they would have a new aircraft carrier as soon as they wanted it. June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Amphibious Assault began when 17-year-old, former Kittie guitarist, Fallon Bowman was on a plane from Ontario to New Jersey, skimming through a Tom Clancy novel when she came upon the term amphibious assault. ... Combatants U.S.-led coalition Iraq Commanders George H. W. Bush, Norman Schwarzkopf, Colin Powell Saddam Hussein, Ali Hassan Al-Majid, Hussein Kamel Strength 660,000 ~545,000 Casualties 345 dead, 1,000 wounded 25,000 - 100,000 dead, 100,000 - 300,000 wounded The 1991 Gulf War (also Persian... For other uses of the name Kosovo, see Kosovo (disambiguation). ... The 21st century is the present century of the Gregorian calendar. ... A Tomahawk cruise missile A cruise missile is a guided missile which uses a lifting wing and most often a jet propulsion system to allow sustained flight. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Air Force and Navy historians continue to advocate the positions held by both sides during the "Revolt of the Admirals".

See also

• Civilian control of the military
• Interservice rivalry

U.S. President Abraham Lincolns active involvement in the conduct of the American Civil War, which frequently involved pressing his generals to undertake more aggressive actions, set a precedent for the power of the civilian Commander-in-Chief. ... Interservice rivalry is a military term referring to rivalries that can arise between different branches of a countrys armed forces, such as between a nations land forces (army) and naval forces. ...

Reference

• Barlow, Jeffrey G. Revolt of the Admirals: The Fight for Naval Aviation, 1945–1950. Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 1994. ISBN 0160420946.

External links

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• Hermann Wolk article in Air Force Magazine, from 1988
• Death and Rebirth of the Supercarrier - Andrew Toppan, 1996
• Paper for the USAF Air Command and Staff College - Andrew L. Lewis, LCDR, USN