Castor beans

Ricin (pronounced /ˈraɪsɨn/) is a protein toxin that is extracted from the castor bean (Ricinus communis). Image File history File links Castor_beans. ... Image File history File links Castor_beans. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... For other uses, see Toxin (disambiguation). ... In chemistry, liquid-liquid extraction (or more briefly, solvent extraction) is a useful method to separate components (compounds) of a mixture. ... Binomial name Ricinus communis L. The castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) is a plant species of the Euphorbiaceae and the sole member of the genus Ricinus and of the subtribe Ricininae. ...

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) gives a possible minimum figure of 500 micrograms (about the size of a grain of salt)^{[citation needed]} for the lethal dose of ricin in humans if exposure is from injection or inhalation.^[1] A lethal dose (LD) is an indication of the lethality of a given substance or type of radiation. ... Injection has multiple meanings: In mathematics, the term injection refers to an injective function. ...

Toxicity

Ricin structure. The A chain is shown in blue and the B chain in orange.

Ricin is poisonous if inhaled, injected, or ingested, acting as a toxin by the inhibition of protein synthesis. While there is no known antidote, the US military has developed a vaccine.^[2] Symptomatic and supportive treatment is available. Long term organ damage is likely in survivors. Ricin causes severe diarrhea and victims can die of shock. Abrin is a similar toxin. Inhalation is the movement of air from the external environment, through the airways, into the alveoli during breathing. ... An injection is a method of putting liquid into the body with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin to a sufficient depth for the material to be forced into the body. ... In general terms, eating (formally, ingestion) is the process of consuming something edible, i. ... Protein biosynthesis (synthesis) is the process in which cells build proteins. ... An antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. ... A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ... A symptom is a manifestation of a disease, indicating the nature of the disease, which is noticed by the patient. ... This article is about the biological unit. ... In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), refers to frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. ... This article is about the medical condition. ... Binomial name Abrus precatorius L. The Jequirity, also called Black-eyed Susan, Rosary Pea or Indian Licorice (Abrus precatorius), is a legume with long, pinnate-leafleted leaves. ...

Deaths caused by ingestion of castor oil plant seeds is rare.^[3] Eight beans are considered toxic for an adult.^[4] A solution of saline and glucose has been used to treat ricin overdose.^[5] The case experience is not as negative as popular perception would indicate.^[6] In medicine, saline is a solution of sodium chloride (a substance also commonly known as table salt) in sterile water, used frequently for intravenous infusion, rinsing contact lenses, and nasal irrigation (or the yogic practice called jala neti). ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ...

Biochemistry

Ricin is classified as a type 2 ribosome inactivating protein (RIP). Whereas Type 1 RIPs consist of a single enzymatic protein chain, Type 2 RIPs, also known as holotoxins, are heterodimeric glycoproteins. Type 2 RIPs consist of an A chain that is functionally equivalent to a Type 1 RIP, covalently connected by a single disulfide bond to a B chain that is catalytically inactive, but serves to mediate entry of the A-B protein complex into the cytosol. Both Type 1 and Type 2 RIPs are functionally active against ribosomes in vitro, however only Type 2 RIPs display cytoxicity due to the lectin properties of the B chain. In order to display its ribosome inactivating function, the ricin disulfide bond must be reductively cleaved.^[7]

Structure

The tertiary structure of ricin was shown to be a globular, glycosylated heterodimer of approximately 60-65 kDA.[5] Ricin toxin A chain (RTA) and ricin toxin B chain (RTB) are of similar molecular weight, approximately 32 kDA and 34 kDA respectively.

• Ricin A Chain is an N-glycoside hydrolase composed of 267 amino acids.^[8] It has three structural domains with approximately 50% of the polypeptide arranged into alpha-helices and beta-sheets.^[9] The three domains form a pronounced cleft that is the active site of RTA.
• Ricin B Chain is a lectin composed of 262 amino acids that is able to bind terminal galactose residues on cell surfaces.^[10] RTB form a bilobal, barbell-like structure lacking alpha-helices or beta-sheets where individual lobes contain three subdomains. At least one of these three subdomains in each homologous lobe possesses a sugar-binding pocket that gives RTB its functional character.

Many plants such as barley have the A chain but not the B chain. People do not get sick from eating large amounts of such products, as ricin A is of extremely low toxicity as long as the B chain is not present. For other uses, see Barley (disambiguation). ...

Entry into the Cytosol

The ability of ricin to enter the cytosol depends on hydrogen bonding interactions between RTB amino acid residues and complex carbohydrates on the surface of eukaryotic cells containing either terminal N-acetyl galactosamine or beta-1,4-linked galactose residues. Additionally, the mannose-type glycans of ricin are able to bind cells that express mannose receptors.^[11] Experimentally, RTB has been shown to bind to the cell surface on the order of 10⁶-10⁸ ricin molecules per cell surface.^[12] The cytosol (cf. ...

The profuse binding of ricin to surface membranes allows internalization with all types of membrane invaginations. Experimental evidence points to ricin uptake in both clathrin-coated pits, as well as clathrin-independent pathways including caveolae and macropinocytosis.^[13][14] Vesicles shuttle ricin to endosomes that are delivered to the Golgi apparatus. The active acidification of endosomes are thought to have little effect on the functional properties of ricin. Because ricin is stable over a wide pH range, degradation in endosomes or lysosomes offer little or no protection against ricin.^[15] Ricin molecules are thought to follow retrograde transport through the Golgi and enter the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

For ricin to function cytotoxically, RTA must be reductively cleaved from RTB in order to release a steric block of the RTA active site. Currently, it is unknown whether this takes place in the ER or in the cytosol. It is speculated that within the ER, RTA utilizes the endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD) pathway that exists to eject misfolded proteins to the cytosol.^[16] Chaperones participating in ERAD may recognize RTA as misfolded native protein and translocate it into the cytosol. Additionally, RTA resists degradation by ubiquitination that often occurs with misfolded proteins by maintaining a low content of lysine residues, the usual attachment sites for ubiquitin.^[17] In the cytosol, RTA is free to exert its toxicity on ribosomes. Figure 1: Ribosome structure indicating small subunit (A) and large subunit (B). ...

Ribosome Inactivation

Study of the N-glycosidase activity of ricin was pioneered by Endo and Tsurugi^[18] who showed that RTA cleaves a glycosidic bond within the large rRNA of the 60S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. They subsequently showed RTA specifically and irreversibly hydrolyses the N-glycosidic bond of the adenine residue at position 4324 (A4324) within the 28S rRNA, but leaves the phosphodiester backbone of the RNA intact.^[19] The ricin targets A4324 that is contained in a highly conserved sequence of 12 nucleotides universally found in eukaryotic ribosomes. The sequence, 5’-AGUACGAGAGGA-3’, termed the sarcin-ricin loop, is important in binding elongation factors during protein synthesis.^[20] The depurination event rapidly and completely inactivates the ribosome, resulting in toxicity from inhibited protein synthesis. A single RTA molecule in the cytosol is capable of depurinating approximately 1500 ribosomes per minute.

Depurination Reaction

Within the active site of RTA, there exist several invariant amino acid residues involved in the depurination of ribosomal RNA.^[21] Although the exact mechanism of the event is unknown, key amino acid residues identified include tyrosine at positions 80 and 123, glutamic acid at position 177, and arginine at position 180. In particular, Arg180 and Glu177 have been shown to be involved in the catalytic mechanism, and not substrate binding, with enzyme kinetic studies involving RTA mutants. The model proposed by Mozingo and Robertus^[22], based x-ray structures, is as follows:

1. Sarcin-ricin loop substrate binds RTA active site with target adenine stacking against tyr80 and tyr123.
2. Arg180 is positioned such that it can protonate N-3 of adenine and break the bond between N-9 of the adenine ring and C-1’ of the ribose.
3. Bond cleavage results in an oxycarbonium ion on the ribose, stabilized by Glu177.
4. N-3 protonation of adenine by Arg180 allows deprotonation of a nearby water molecule.
5. Resulting hydroxyl attacks ribose carbonium ion.
6. Depurination of adenine results in a neutral ribose on an intact phosphodiester RNA backbone.

Manufacture

Ricin is easily purified from castor-oil manufacturing waste. The seed pulp left over from pressing for castor oil contains on average about 5% by weight of ricin. Categories: Move to Wiktionary | Stub | Chemistry ... Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the castor bean (technically castor seed as the castor plant, Ricinus communis, is not a member of the bean family). ... For other uses, see Waste (disambiguation). ... A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation). ...

Patented extraction process

The process for extracting ricin is well-known, and for example described in a patent.^[23] The described extraction method is very similar to the preparation of soy protein isolates. For other uses, see Patent (disambiguation). ...

The patent was removed from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) database sometime in 2004, but is still available online through international patent databases.^[24] Modern theories of protein chemistry cast doubt on the effectiveness of the methods disclosed in the patent.^[25] PTO headquarters in Alexandria The United States Patent and Trademark Office (PTO or USPTO) is an agency in the United States Department of Commerce that provides patent and trademark protection to inventors and businesses for their inventions and corporate and product identification. ...

Potential medicinal use

Ricins may have therapeutic use in the treatment of cancer, as a so-called "magic bullet" to specifically target and destroy cancer cells:^[26] Ricin could be linked to a monoclonal antibody to target malignant cells recognized by the antibody. Modification of ricin is believed to be possible to lessen its toxicity to humans, but not to the cancer cells. A promising approach is also to use the non-toxic B subunit as a vehicle for delivering antigens into cells thus greatly increasing their immunogenicity. Use of ricin as an adjuvant has potential implications for developing mucosal vaccines. Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were produced by one type of immune cell, all clones of a single parent cell. ... An antigen or immunogen is a molecule that stimulates an immune response. ... This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary using the Transwiki process. ... In medicine, adjuvants are agents which modify the effect of other agents while having few if any direct effects when given by themselves. ... A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ...

Use as a chemical/biological warfare agent

The United States investigated ricin for its military potential during the First World War. At that time it was being considered for use either as a toxic dust or as a coating for bullets and shrapnel. The dust cloud concept could not be adequately developed, and the coated bullet/shrapnel concept would violate the Hague Convention of 1899. The war ended before it was weaponized. Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... This article is about firearms projectiles. ... It has been suggested that Fragmentation (weaponry) be merged into this article or section. ... Dust clouds are clouds of dust suspended in the air. ... The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and 1907, respectively, and were, along with the Geneva Conventions, among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of secular international...

During the Second World War the United States and Canada undertook studying ricin in cluster bombs. Though there were plans for mass production and several field trials with different bomblet concepts, the end conclusion was that it was no more economical than using phosgene. This conclusion was based on comparison of the final weapons rather than ricin's toxicity (LCt₅₀ ~40 mg•min/m³). Ricin was given the military symbol W or later WA. Interest in it continued for a short period after the Second World War, but soon subsided when the U.S. Army Chemical Corps began a program to weaponize sarin. Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... A US B-1 Lancer releasing its payload of cluster bombs Cluster munitions or cluster bombs are air-dropped or ground-launched munitions that eject a number of smaller submunitions (bomblets). The most common types are intended to kill enemy personnel and destroy vehicles. ... Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines. ... A Spaniel Field Trial A field trial is a highly competitive event at which hunting dogs usually compete against one another. ... A submunition is the name given to a bomblet contained in a cluster bomb. ... Phosgene is a highly toxic chemical compound with the formula COCl2. ... An LD50 test being administered In toxicology, the LD50 or colloquially semilethal dose of a particular substance is a measure of how much constitutes a lethal dose. ... For other uses, see Sarin (disambiguation). ...

The Soviet Union also had ricin. There were speculations that KGB even used it outside of the Soviet bloc, however this was never proven. In 1978, the Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov was assassinated by Bulgarian secret police who surreptitiously 'shot' him on a London street with a modified umbrella using compressed gas to fire a tiny pellet contaminated with ricin into his leg.^[27] He died in a hospital a few days later; his body was passed to a special poison branch of the British Ministry of Defence (MOD) that discovered the pellet during an autopsy. The prime suspects were the Bulgarian secret police: Georgi Markov had defected from Bulgaria some years previously and had subsequently written books and made radio broadcasts which were highly critical of the Bulgarian communist regime. However, it was believed at the time that Bulgaria would not have been able to produce the poison, and it was also believed that the KGB had supplied it. The KGB denied any involvement although high-profile KGB defectors Oleg Kalugin and Oleg Gordievsky have since confirmed the KGB's involvement. Earlier, Soviet dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn also suffered (but survived) ricin-like symptoms after a 1971 encounter with KGB agents.^[28] Georgi Ivanov Markov Georgi Ivanov Markov (Bulgarian: ) (March 1, 1929 - September 11, 1978) was a Bulgarian dissident. ... This article is about secret police as organizations. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... An umbrella or parasol (sometimes colloquially, gamp, brolly, or bumbershoot) is a canopy designed to protect against precipitation or sunlight. ... A P-v diagram for liquid water. ... The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for implementation of government defence policy and the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. ... This article is about the medical procedure. ... In politics, a defector is a person who gives up allegiance to one state or political entity in exchange for allegiance to another. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... Oleg Kalugin Oleg Danilovich Kalugin (Russian: ), (born September 6, 1934) is a former KGB spy. ... Oleg Antonovich Gordievsky (born 10 October 1938 in Moscow, Russia), was a Colonel of the KGB and KGB Resident-designate (rezidentura) and bureau chief in London, who defected to the United Kingdom. ... For the Pearl Jam song, see Dissident (song). ... Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn (Russian: , IPA:  ; born December 11, 1918) is a Russian novelist, dramatist and historian. ...

Despite ricin's extreme toxicity and utility as an agent of chemical/biological warfare, it is extremely difficult to limit the production of the toxin. Under both the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention and the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention, ricin is listed as a schedule 1 controlled substance. Despite this, more than 1 million metric tonnes of castor beans are processed each year, and approximately 5% of the total is rendered into a waste containing high concentrations of ricin toxin.^[29] // Toxic and Intoxicated redirect here – toxic has other uses, which can be found at Toxicity (disambiguation); for the state of being intoxicated by alcohol see Drunkenness. ... Biological Weapons Convention Opened for signature April 10, 1972 at Moscow, Washington and London Entered into force March 26, 1975 Conditions for entry into force ??? Parties ??? The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to... Chemical Weapons Convention Opened for signature January 13, 1993 in Paris Entered into force April 29, 1997 Conditions for entry into force Ratification by 50 states and the convening of a Preparatory Commission Parties 181 (as of Oct. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... A tonne (also called metric ton) is a non-SI unit of mass, accepted for use with SI, defined as: 1 tonne = 103 kg (= 106 g). ... Toxic waste is waste material, often in chemical form, that can cause death or injury to living creatures. ...

To put ricin used as a weapon into perspective, it is worth noting that as a biological weapon or chemical weapon, ricin may not be considered very powerful in comparison with other agents such as botulinum or anthrax. Hence, a military willing to use biological weapons and having advanced resources would rather use either of the latter instead. Ricin is easy to produce, but is not as practical nor likely to cause as many casualties as other agents. Ricin is inactivated (ie, the protein changes structure and becomes less dangerous) much more readily than anthrax spores, which may remain lethal for decades. (Jan van Aken, an expert on biological weapons explained in an interview with the German magazine Der Spiegel that he judges it rather reassuring that Al Qaeda experimented with ricin as it suggests their inability to produce botulin or anthrax.) For other uses, see Weapon (disambiguation). ... Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare, is the use of any organism (bacteria, virus or other disease_causing organism) or toxin found in nature, as a weapon of war. ... Dressing the wounded during a gas attack by Austin O. Spare, 1918. ... Botulin toxin or botox is the toxic compound produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Map of major attacks attributed to al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda (also al-Qaida or al-Qaida or al-Qaidah) (Arabic: ‎ , translation: The Base) is an international alliance of terrorist organizations founded in 1988[4] by Osama bin Laden and other veteran Afghan Arabs after the Soviet War in...

The major reason it is dangerous is that there is no specific antidote, and that it is very easy to obtain (the castor bean plant is a common ornamental, and can be grown at home without any special care). There have been several reported incidents where ricin has been involved with infanticide where small children have been tricked into eating castor beans because of their striking resemblance to chocolate covered coffee beans. Ricin is actually several orders of magnitude less toxic than botulinum or tetanus toxin, but those are more difficult to obtain. An antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. ... Petunia This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An order of magnitude is the class of scale or magnitude of any amount, where each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding it. ... Botulin toxin or botox is the toxic compound produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. ... Structure of tetanospasmin Mechanism of action of tetanospasmin Tetanospasmin is the neurotoxin produced by the vegetative spore of Clostridium tetani in anaerobic conditions, causing tetanus. ...

Detected ricin incidents

1978 assassination of Georgi Markov

On 7 September 1978 the Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov was stabbed in the leg in public on Waterloo Bridge in the middle of London by a man using a weapon built into an umbrella. The weapon embedded a small pellet in Markov's leg which contained ricin. Markov died four days later.^{[citation needed]} is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar). ... For the Pearl Jam song, see Dissident (song). ... Georgi Ivanov Markov Georgi Ivanov Markov (Bulgarian: ) (March 1, 1929 - September 11, 1978) was a Bulgarian dissident. ... View of the old Waterloo Bridge from Whitehall stairs, John Constable, 18 June 1817 Waterloo Bridge granite stone in Canberra, Australia. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... An umbrella or parasol (sometimes colloquially, gamp, brolly, or bumbershoot) is a canopy designed to protect against precipitation or sunlight. ...

Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Alternate newspaper: The Daily Mirror (Australia) The Daily Mirror is a popular British tabloid daily newspaper. ...

2003 arrests in Britain

Main article: Wood Green ricin plot

On 5 January 2003 the Metropolitan Police raided a flat in north London and arrested six Algerian men whom they claimed were manufacturing ricin as part of a plot for a poison attack on the London Underground. No ricin was recovered as a result of this raid. Daily Mirror front page when the ricin plot news was released. ... is the 5th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Metropolitan Police redirects here. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... The London Underground is a rapid transit system that serves a large part of Greater London and some neighbouring areas of Essex, Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire. ...

2003 envelope in South Carolina

In 2003, a package and letter sealed in a "ricin-contaminated" envelope was intercepted in Greenville, South Carolina, at a United States Postal Service processing center.^[30] For other places with the same name, see Greenville. ... USPS and Usps redirect here. ...

2003 White House mail

Ricin was detected in the mail at the White House in Washington, D.C. in November 2003. The letter containing it was intercepted at a mail handling facility off the grounds of the White House, and it never reached its intended destination. The letter contained a fine powdery substance that later tested positive for ricin. Investigators said it was low potency and was not considered a health risk. This information was not made public until February 3, 2004, when preliminary tests showed the presence of ricin in an office mailroom of U.S. Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist's office. There were no signs that anyone who was near the contaminated area developed any medical problems. Several Senate office buildings were closed as a precaution. For other uses, see Mail (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see White House (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Washington, D.C. (disambiguation). ... Potency may refer to: Virility Lack of the above: Erectile dysfunction, Infertility or Effeminacy. ... is the 34th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Senate Majority Leader is a member of the United States Senate who is elected by his or her party conference to serve as the chief Senate spokesman for his or her party and to manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate. ... William Harrison Bill Frist, Sr. ...

2006 home in Richmond, Virginia

In January 2006, ricin was found in a home in suburban Richmond, Virginia in the form of mashed castor beans. Although the suspect, Chetanand Sewraz, was allegedly isolating the toxin to kill his estranged wife, and not for some form of bioterrorism, it nonetheless highlighted the ease with which ricin toxin can be made.^[31][32] Illustration of the backyards of a surburban neighbourhood Suburbs are inhabited districts located either on the outer rim of a city or outside the official limits of a city (the term varies from country to country), or the outer elements of a conurbation. ... Nickname: Motto: Sic Itur Ad Astra (Thus do we reach the stars) Location in the Commonwealth of Virginia Coordinates: , Country State Government  - Mayor L. Douglas Wilder (I) Area  - City 62. ... Arrest photo of Chetanand Sewraz Chetanand Kumar Sewraz, who has also gone by the given name of Ashley, is a 24-year old Mauritian man currently under investigation by the FBI, ATF, and Chesterfield County, Virginia law enforcement agencies for a variety of crimes allegedly committed in the US between... For the use of biological agents in warfare, see Biological warfare. ...

2008 hotel room in Las Vegas, Nevada

In February 2008, a man who stayed in a Las Vegas, Nevada motel room where ricin was found was taken to hospital in critical condition. The man, Roger Von Bergendorff, was hospitalized on February 14; however, the ricin was not found until February 27 when a relative retrieved his luggage because the motel had not been paid for two weeks. Firearms and an "anarchist type textbook" were found in the same motel room where several vials of ricin were found, police reported. According to Las Vegas 8 Television news, police noted the ricin section of the textbook was highlighted. ^[33][34] On March 3rd, FBI agents searched a Riverton, Utah house and several storage lockers in West Jordan, Utah linked to Bergendorff, but did not find any traces of ricin.^[35][36][37] Bergdendorff awoke from a comatose condition on March 14th. He was questioned by police as to why he had such a large quantity of ricin.^[38] Subsequently, he was arrested on April 16 and charged with possession of a biological toxin and two weapons offenses. ^[39] For further information, see Las Vegas metropolitan area and Las Vegas Strip. ... is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 58th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Firearms redirects here. ... The Anarchist Cookbook (ISBN 0-9623032-0-8) is a book written by William Powell. ... KLAS (Channel 8 analog, 7 digital) is the CBS station serving the Las Vegas, Nevada market. ... F.B.I. and FBI redirect here. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ...

See also

• 2001 anthrax attacks

The 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, also known as Amerithrax from its FBI case name, occurred over the course of several weeks beginning on September 18, 2001. ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Flag of the United States Secretary of the Army The United States Secretary of the Army has statutory responsibility for all matters relating to the United States Army: manpower, personnel, reserve affairs, installations, environmental issues, weapons systems and equipment acquisition, communications, and financial management. ... is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 296th day of the year (297th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Era (or Anno Domini), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 74th day of the year (75th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• Castor bean information at Purdue University
• ricin information at Department of Health (United Kingdom)
• ricin information at Cornell University
• Medical research on ricin at BBC
• Chemical Review at United States Army
• Ricin - Emergency Preparations at CDC