Hindu texts

Śruti - Vedas Samhitas Rig Veda Sama Veda Yajur Veda Atharva Veda Brāhmaņas Āraņyakas Upanishads Smriti Hindu scripture is overwhelmingly written in Sanskrit. ... Image File history File links Aum. ... Åšruti (Sanskrit श्रुति, what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद) are an extremaly large series of writings originating in Ancient India. ... The Samhita (Sanskrit: joined or collected) is the basic text of each of the Vedas, comprising collections of hymns and ritual texts. ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... The Sama Veda (सामवेद), or Veda of Holy Songs, is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Yajur Veda यजुर्वेद is one of the four Hindu Vedas; it contains religious texts focussing on liturgy and ritual. ... The Atharva Veda is a sacred text of Hinduism, part of the four books of the Vedas. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Aranyakas (Forest Books, Forest Treatises) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... The Upanishads (; Devanagari ) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most forms of Hinduism. ... Smriti (Sanskrit स्मॄति, that which is remembered) refers to a specific canon of Hindu religious scripture. ... Itihasas Mahābhārata Bhagavad Gītā Ramayana Puranas (List) Tantras Sutras (List) Stotras This box: view • talk • edit

The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a tatpurusha compound of ṛc "praise, verse" and veda "knowledge") is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns counted among the four Hindu religious texts known as the Vedas. The Rigveda was likely composed between roughly 1700–1100 BCE, making it one of the oldest texts of any Indo-European language and one of the world's oldest religious texts. It was preserved over centuries by oral tradition alone and was probably not put in writing before Late Antiquity or even the early Middle Ages.^[1] Itihasa (Sanskrit: इतिहास - itihāsa in IAST notation, literally meaning that which happened) is the word for History. ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ), is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... Bhagavad Gīta भगवद्गीता, composed ca the fifth - second centuries BC, is part of the epic poem Mahabharata, located in the Bhisma-Parva chapters 23–40. ... The (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit epic attributed to the poet Valmiki and is an important part of the Hindu canon (smá¹›ti). ... The Puranas (Sanskrit पुराण, purāṇá ancient, since they focus on ancient history of the universe) are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss varied topics like devotion to God in his various aspects, traditional sciences like Ayurveda, Jyotish, cosmology, concepts like dharma, karma, reincarnation and many others. ... The Puranas (Sanskrit पुराण, purāṇá ancient, since they focus on ancient history of the universe) are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss varied topics like devotion to God in his various aspects, traditional sciences like Ayurveda, Jyotish, cosmology, concepts like dharma, karma, reincarnation and many others. ... The Tantra (Looms or Weavings), refer to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions rooted in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb siv-, meaning to sew (these words, including English to sew and Latinate suture, all derive from PIE *syÅ«-). It literally means a rope or thread, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms... Below is a list of sutras organized alphabetically under the broad categories of Hinduism and Buddhism. ... Stotras are Hindu prayers that praise aspects of God, such as Devi, Siva, or Vishnu. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम् ; pronunciation: ) is an Indo-European classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... A Tatpurusha is a type of compound in Sanskrit grammar. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of India. ... See also hymn - a program to decrypt iTunes music files. ... Hinduism (Sanskrit - Sanātana (eternal) Dharma also known as Vaidika (Vedic) Dharma) is a religion or philosophy that originated from the Indian subcontinent and nearby surrounding areas. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद) are an extremaly large series of writings originating in Ancient India. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Indo-European languages include some 443 (SIL estimate) languages and dialects spoken by about three billion people, including most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia, which belong to a single superfamily. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next in a civilization without a writing system. ... Late Antiquity is a rough periodization (c. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Text

The Rigveda consists ^[2] of 1,028 hymns (or 1,017 discounting the apocryphal valakhīlya hymns 8.49–8.59) composed in Vedic Sanskrit, many of which are intended for various sacrifical rituals. This long collection of short hymns is mostly devoted to the praise of the gods. It is organized into 10 books, known as Mandalas. Each mandala is comprised of hymns, called sūkta, which are further comprised of individual verses called ṛc, plural ṛcas. The Mandalas are by no means of equal length or age: The "family books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and comprise the shortest books, arranged by length, accounting for 38% of the text. RV 8 and RV 9, likely comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. RV 1 and RV 10, finally, are both the youngest and the longest books, accounting for 37% of the text. In Judeo-Christian theologies, apocrypha refers to religious Sacred text that have questionable authenticity or are otherwise disputed. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of India. ... Marcus Aurelius and members of the Imperial family offer sacrifice in gratitude for success against Germanic tribes: contemporary bas-relief, Capitoline Museum, Rome Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning to make sacred, from Old French, from Latin sacrificium : sacer, sacred; sacred + facere, to make) is commonly known as the... A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of sex A ritual may be performed at regular intervals, or on specific occasions, or at the discretion of individuals or communities. ... Buddhist mandala Mandala (Sanskrit circle, completion) is of Hindu origin but is also used in a Buddhist context to refer to various tangible objects. ... The eighth Mandala of the Rigveda has 103 hymns. ... The ninth Mandala of the Rigveda, also called the Soma Mandala has 114 hymns, entirely[1] devoted to , Purifying Soma, the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. ... The first Mandala (book) of the Rigveda has 191 hymns. ... The tenth Mandala of the Rigveda has 191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. ...

Preservation

The Rigveda is preserved by two major shakhas ("branches", i. e. schools or recensions), Śākala and Bāṣkala. Considering its great age, the text is spectacularly well preserved and uncorrupted, the two recensions being practically identical, so that scholarly editions can mostly do without a critical apparatus. Associated to Śākala is the Aitareya-Brahmana. The Bāṣkala includes the Khilani and has the Kausitaki-Brahmana associated to it. Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala school. ... The Khilani are are a collection of 98 apocryphal hymns of the Rigveda, recorded in the Bashakala, but not in the Shakala school. ... The Kaushitaki Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Bashkala shakha. ...

This compilation or redaction included the arrangement in books as well as orthoepic changes, such as regularization of sandhi (called by Oldenberg orthoepische Diaskeunase). It took place centuries after the composition of the earliest hymns, about co-eval to the redaction of the other Vedas. Orthoepy means the correct use of words, from the Greek orth- + -epos, correct + word, speech. ... Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ... The Vedas are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ...

From the time of its redaction, the text has been handed down in two versions: The Samhitapatha has all Sanskrit rules of sandhi applied and is the text used for recitation. The Padapatha has each word isolated in its pausa form and is used for memorization. The Padapatha is, as it were, a commentary to the Samhitapatha, but the two seem to be about co-eval. The original text as reconstructed on metrical grounds (viz. "original" in the sense that it aims to recover the hymns as composed by the Rishis) lies somewhere between the two, but closer to the Samhitapatha. Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ... A pada ( foot) in Sanskrit poetic meter (chandas) is a quarter of a full verse (the foot of a quadruped being one out of four), e. ... In Hinduism, a Rishi ( ऋषि) is a sage and/or seer who heard (cf. ...

Organization

The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and pada (foot) a, b, c ..., if required). E. g. the first pada is A pada ( foot) in Sanskrit poetic meter (chandas) is a quarter of a full verse (the foot of a quadruped being one out of four), e. ... In verse, a foot is the basic unit of meter used to describe rhythm. ...

• 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ "Agni I laud, the high priest"

and the final pada is

• 10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati "for your being in good company"

Hermann Grassmann has though numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the valakhilya at the end. The entire 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, in the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, contain a total of 10,552 verses, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000, while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi. Most verses are jagati (padas of 12 syllables), trishtubh (padas of 11 syllables), viraj (padas of 10 syllables) or gayatri or anushtubh (padas of 8 syllables). Hermann Günther Grassmann (April 15, 1809, Stettin – September 26, 1877, Stettin) was a German polymath, renowned in his day as a linguist and now admired as a mathematician. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. ... The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. ... The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. ... Gayatri (Sanskrit: , IAST: ) is the feminine form of gāyatra, a Sanskrit word for a song or a hymn. ... The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. ...

Contents

See also: Rigvedic deities

The chief gods of the Rigveda are Agni, the sacrificial fire, Indra, a heroic god who is praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra, and Soma, the sacred potion, or the plant it is made from. Other prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna and Ushas (the dawn) and the Ashvins. Also invoked are Savitar, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, Dyaus Pita (the sky), Prithivi (the earth), Surya (the sun), Vayu (the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya (the rain), Vac (the word), the Maruts, the Adityas, the Rbhus, the Vishvadevas (the all-gods), many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River), as well as various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and items. It also contains fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa. There are 1028 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... In Hinduism, Vritra (Sanskrit वृत्र Vṛtra, the enveloper) was a serpent or dragon, the personification of drought and enemy of Indra. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... This article is about the Vedic deity Mitra. ... This article is about the god. ... Ushas (उषः úṣas-), Sanskrit for dawn, is the chief goddess (sometimes imagined as several goddesses, Dawns) exalted in the Rigveda. ... The Ashvins ( possessor of horses, horse tamer, cavalier, dual ) are divine twin horsemen in the Rigveda, sons of Saranya, a goddess of the dawn and wife of either Surya or Vivasvat. ... In Hinduism, Savitri (also Savitr, Savitar) is a solar deity and one of the Adityas. ... For other uses of the name Vishnu, see Vishnu (disambiguation). ... Rudra is another name of Lord Shiva, the lord of destruction. ... Pushan, also known as Puchan, is the Hindu god of meeting. ... In Hinduism, Brihaspati is the god of magic and prayer. ... In Hinduism, Brihaspati is the god of magic and prayer. ... In vedic religion, Dyaus Pita is the Sky Father, husband of Prithvi and father of Agni and Indra (RV 4. ... In Hinduism, Prithvi (pṛthvī) is an Earth Mother or Prithvi Mata, wife of Dyaus Pita, mother of Indra and Agni. ... This article is in need of attention. ... In Hinduism, Vayu (also known as Pavan) is a primary god, father of Bhima and Hanuman. ... Ap () is the Vedic Sanskrit term for water, in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the plural, (sometimes re-analysed as a thematic singular, ), whence Hindi . ... Monsoon in the Vindhya range. ... VAC may refer to: volts of alternating current. ... In Hinduism In Hinduism, the Maruts, also known as the Marutgana and the Rudras, are minor storm deities, sons of Rudra and Diti, and attendants of Indra. ... In Hinduism, the Adityas are a group of solar deities, sons of Aditi and Kasyapa. ... In Hinduism, the Rbhus (singular Rbhu) are the gods of crafts, artisans, horses and also solar deities. ... The word Visvadevas means Lords of the Universe or All Gods. The term is used to address the various gods as a whole. ... Rivers play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rigveda, and consequently in early Vedic religion. ... The Sapta Sindhu are the seven sacred rivers in Hindu mythology. ... The Sarasvati River is an ancient river that is mentioned in Hindu texts. ... The Vedic civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. ... Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatama Gandhi and a Rajasthani tribesman The Indo-Aryans are the ethno-linguistic descendents of the Indic branch of the Indo-Iranians. ... Luftwaffe Tornado ECR Deutsche Aerospace AG Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG Founded May 19, 1989 as Deutsche Aerospace AG, bundling space and aeronautic elements of Daimler-Benz (including Dornier Luftfahrt), Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB), MTU München, and Telefunken Systemtechnik (TST) In 1992, the helicopter division was...

Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century

• Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 to 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.
• Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamda śaunohotra.
• Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ.
• Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vāmadeva gautama.
• Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitar. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri family.
• Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya family of Angirasas.
• Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi.
• Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to different gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal valakhīlya. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the kāṇva family.
• Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.
• Mandala 10 comprises 191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta which has significance in Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most celebrated hymns in the west, which deals with creation.

Download high resolution version (1161x1125, 419 KB)Rigveda MS in Sanskrit on paper, India, early 19th c. ... Download high resolution version (1161x1125, 419 KB)Rigveda MS in Sanskrit on paper, India, early 19th c. ... Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century) DevanāgarÄ« (देवनागरी — in English pronounced ) (ISCII – IS13194:1991) [1] is an abugida alphabet used to write several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. ... The first Mandala of the Rig Veda has 191 hymns. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... For other uses of the name Vishnu, see Vishnu (disambiguation). ... The second Mandala of the Rig Veda has 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra chiefly attributed to the Rishi . ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... The third Mandala of the Rig Veda has 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... Hinduism (Sanskrit - Sanātana (eternal) Dharma also known as Vaidika (Vedic) Dharma) is a religion or philosophy that originated from the Indian subcontinent and nearby surrounding areas. ... Gayatri (gāyatrī) is the feminine form of gāyatra, a Sanskrit word for a song or a hymn. ... The fourth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... The fifth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... The word Visvadevas means Lords of the universe or All Gods. The term is used to address the various gods as a whole. ... In Hinduism In Hinduism, the Maruts, also known as the Marutgana and the Rudras, are minor storm deities, sons of Rudra and Diti, and attendants of Indra. ... This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... In Hinduism, the Asvins are the twin sons of Saranya with either Surya or Vivasvat. ... Ushas (उषः úṣas-), Sanskrit for dawn, is the chief goddess (sometimes imagined as several goddesses, Dawns) exalted in the Rigveda. ... In Hinduism, Savitri (also Savitr, Savitar) is a solar deity and one of the Adityas. ... The sixth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... In Hinduism, the Angiris (or Angiras) are a group of angels responsible for watching over humans performing sacrifices. ... The seventh Mandala of the Rig Veda has 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to others. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... Indra is also the name of a song by the Thievery Corporation. ... The word Visvadevas means Lords of the universe or All Gods. The term is used to address the various gods as a whole. ... In Hinduism In Hinduism, the Maruts, also known as the Marutgana and the Rudras, are minor storm deities, sons of Rudra and Diti, and attendants of Indra. ... This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... In Hinduism, the Asvins are the twin sons of Saranya with either Surya or Vivasvat. ... Ushas (उषः úṣas-), Sanskrit for dawn, is the chief goddess (sometimes imagined as several goddesses, Dawns) exalted in the Rigveda. ... This article is about the god. ... This article is about the god. ... In Hinduism, Vayu (also known as Pavan) is a primary god, father of Bhima and Hanuman. ... This article is about Saraswati, the Hindu goddess. ... For other uses of the name Vishnu, see Vishnu (disambiguation). ... The eight Mandala of the Rig Veda has 103 hymns to various gods. ... The ninth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... The tenth Mandala of the Rigveda has 191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. ... Agni is a Hindu deity. ... The Nadistuti sukta (praise of the rivers) is hymn 10. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Rishis

Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally attributed to a specific rishi, and the "family books" (2-7) are said to have been composed by one family of rishis each. The main families, listed by the number of verses ascribed to them are: In Hinduism, a Rishi ( ऋषि) is a sage and/or seer who heard (cf. ...

• Angirasas: 3619 (especially Mandala 6)
• Kanvas: 1315 (especially Mandala 8)
• Vasishthas: 1267 (Mandala 7)
• Vaishvamitras: 983 (Mandala 3)
• Atris: 885 (Mandala 5)
• Bhrgus: 473
• Kashyapas: 415 (part of Mandala 9)
• Grtsamadas: 401 (Mandala 2)
• Agastyas: 316
• Bharatas: 170

The sixth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. ... The eight Mandala of the Rig Veda has 103 hymns to various gods. ... The seventh Mandala of the Rig Veda has 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to others. ... The third Mandala of the Rig Veda has 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. ... In Hinduism, Atri is a legendary bard and scholar, and a son of Brahma. ... The fifth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. ... The ninth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. ... The second Mandala of the Rig Veda has 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra chiefly attributed to the Rishi . ...

Translations

The Rigveda was translated into English by Ralph T.H. Griffith in 1896. Partial English translations by Maurice Bloomfield and William Dwight Whitney exist. Griffith's translation is good, considering its age, but it is no replacement for Geldner's 1951 translation (in German), the only independent scholarly translation so far. The later translations by Elizarenkova depends heavily on Geldner, but Elizarenkova's translation (in Russian) is valuable in taking into account scholarly literature up to 1990. Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (1826-1906), scholar of indology, translated the vedic scriptures into English. ... 1896 (MDCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Maurice Bloomfield February 23, 1855 - June 12, 1928, American Sanskrit scholar, was born on the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz, in what was at that time Austrian Silesia (today it is in Poland). ... William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) was an American linguist, philologist, and lexicographer who edited The Century Dictionary. ...

Hindu tradition

According to Indian tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual. Veda Vyasa(Contemporary painting) Vyasa (Vyāsa in IAST transliteration) is an important and much revered figure in the Hindu tradition and its literature. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... Physiology (in Greek physis = nature and logos = word) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. ...

The authors of the Brāhmana literature described and interpreted the Rigvedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda. In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other Bhāṣyas (commentaries) that have been preserved up to present times are those by Mādhava, Skaṃdasvāmin and Veṃkatamādhava. The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... Yaska Acharya is a celebrated Sanskrit scholar and grammarian of ancient India. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Sayana (सायण) was the great 14th century commentator on the Vedas. ... Madhava is another name for Vishnu and appears as the 72nd, 167th and 735th names in the Vishnu sahasranama. ...

Dating and historical reconstruction

Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetary H cultures are also indicated.

The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion, still closely tied to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. It is thought that Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism evolved from an earlier common religious Indo-Iranian culture. Rivers play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rigveda, and consequently in early Vedic religion. ... Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetary H cultures are indicated. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (December 6, 1823 – October 28, 1900), more commonly known as Max Müller, was a German Orientalist, one of the founders of Indian studies, who virtually created the discipline of comparative religion. ... The religion of the Vedic civilization is the predecessor of classical Hinduism, usually included in the term. ... Zoroastrianism was adapted from an earlier, polytheistic faith by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) in Persia very roughly around 1000 BC (although, in the absence of written records, some scholars estimates are as late as 600 BC). ... The Persians of Iran (officially named Persia by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. ... Map of the Sintashta-Petrovka culture (red), its expansion into the Andronovo culture during the 2nd millennium BC, showing the overlap with the BMAC in the south. ...

The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it the only example of Bronze Age literature with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 1700–1100 BC^[3]. The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha, padapatha). This redaction would have been completed in about the 7th century BC^[4]. Writing appears in India in ca. the 5th century BC in the form of the Brahmi script), but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down before the Early Middle Ages, in the Gupta or Siddham scripts, and while written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they played a minor role in the preservation of knowledge because of their ephemereal nature (Indian manuscripts were on bark or palm leaves and decomposed rapidly in the tropical climate) until the advent of the printing press in British India. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps by Müller, a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other known society. The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... The History of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC. The earliest literary author known by name is Enheduanna... The Samhita (Sanskrit: joined or collected) is the basic text of each of the Vedas, comprising collections of hymns and ritual texts. ... A pada ( foot) in Sanskrit poetic meter (chandas) is a quarter of a full verse (the foot of a quadruped being one out of four), e. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... BrāhmÄ« refers to the pre-modern members of the Brahmic family of scripts, attested from the 3rd century BC. The best known and earliest dated inscriptions in Brahmi are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka. ... The Gupta script was used for writing Sanskrit and is associated with the Gupta Empire of India which was a period of material prosperity and great religious and scientific developments. ... Siddham (Sanskrit, accomplished or perfected) — referred to in Japanese as bonji (梵字) — is the name of a North Indian script used for writing Sanskrit. ... British India (otherwise known as The British Raj) was a historical period during which most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, were under the colonial authority of the British Empire (Undivided India). ... Oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next in a civilization without a writing system. ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ...

Puranic literature names Vidagdha as the author of the Pada-text.^[5] Other scholars argue that Sthavira Sak of the Aitareya Aranyaka is the padakara of the RV.^[6] After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by a vast body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. The Vedic priesthood is the collective term for the priests of the Vedic religion(similar to witch doctors of tribal africa). ... The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas. ...

The Rigveda describes a mobile, nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots and metal (bronze) weapons. According to some scholars the geography described is consistent with that of the Punjab (Gandhara): Rivers flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still reachable (Soma is a plant found in the mountains, and it has to be purchased, imported by merchants). Nevertheless, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest elements possibly reaching back into Indo-Iranian times, or the early 2nd millennium BC. Thus there is some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC (Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex) culture centuries earlier, in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan (separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant). In any case, while it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tigers or rice in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. ^[7] Similarly, it is assumed that there is no mention of iron. ^[8] The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. This is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda (i.e. the arrangement of the individual hymns in books, and the fixing of the samhitapatha (by applying Sandhi) and the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi) out of the earlier metrical text), and the composition of the younger Vedas. This time probably coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. Kazakh nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, ca. ... Hittite chariot (drawing of an Egyptian relief) Approximate historical map of the spread of the chariot, 2000 –500 BC. A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers (c. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient Mahajanapada in eastern Afghanistan and the north-western province of Pakistan. ... Rivers play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rigveda, and consequently in early Vedic religion. ... Soma (Sanskrit), or Haoma (Avestan) (from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-) was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. ... Indo-Iranian can refer to: The Indo-Iranian languages The prehistoric Indo-Iranian people, see Aryan This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro. ... Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatama Gandhi and a Rajasthani tribesman The Indo-Aryans are the ethno-linguistic descendents of the Indic branch of the Indo-Iranians. ... The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (or BMAC, also known as the Oxus civilization) is a modern archaeologists designation for a Bronze Age Turkmenistan. ... The Indus River in Northern Areas of Pakistan, near the rock Aornus. ... The Hindu Kush or Hindukush (هندوکش in Persian) is a mountain range in Afghanistan as well as in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. ... Binomial name Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) Tigers (Panthera tigris) are mammals of the Felidae family and one of four big cats in the panthera genus. ... Species Oryza glaberrima Oryza sativa Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one fifth of the calories consumed by humans[1]. Rice is an annual plant, growing to 1-1. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Atomic mass 55. ... (13th century BC - 12th century BC - 11th century BC - other centuries) (1200s BC - 1190s BC - 1180s BC - 1170s BC - 1160s BC - 1150s BC - 1140s BC - 1130s BC - 1120s BC - 1110s BC - 1100s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 1200 BC - Ancient Pueblo Peoples... The black and red ware culture (BRW) is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian Subcontinent. ... Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. ... The position of the Kuru kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India. ... Uttar Pradesh (Hindi: उत्तर प्रदेश, Urdu: اتر پردیش), also popularly known by its abbreviation UP, is the most populous and fifth largest state in the Union of India. ...

Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion as well: Dyaus-Pita is cognate with Greek Zeus, Latin Jupiter (from deus-pater), and Germanic Tyr; while Mitra is cognate with Persian Mithra; also, Ushas with Greek Eos and Latin Aurora; and, less certainly, Varuna with Greek Uranos. Finally, Agni is cognate with Latin ignis and Russian ogon, both meaning "fire". There are 1028 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities. ... Ancient anthropomorphic Ukrainian stone stela (Kernosovka stela), possibly depicting a late Proto-Indo-European god, most likely Dyeus, the thunderer. ... Statue of Zeus Phidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall statue of Zeus at Olympia about 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous sculpture in ancient Greece, imagined here in a 16th-century engraving. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Jupiter et Thétis - by Jean Ingres, 1811. ... Týr, depicted here with both hands intact, is identified with Mars in this illustration from an 18th century Icelandic manuscript. ... Persian is a language spoken in Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... Eos, by Evelyn de Morgan (1850 - 1919), 1895 (Columbia Museum of Art, Columbia, SC): for a Pre-Raphaelite painter, Eos was still the classical pagan equivalent of an angel Eos (dawn) was, in Greek mythology, the Titan Goddess of the dawn, who rose from her home at the edge of... Look up Aurora, aurora in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Ouranos is the Greek name of the sky, latinized as Uranus. ...

Some writers have traced astronomical references[2] in the Rigveda dating it to as early as 4000 BC^[9], a date well within the Indian Neolithic. Claims of such evidence remain controversial. ^[10] The sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice Archaeoastronomy (also spelled Archeoastronomy) is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilising archaeological and anthropological evidence. ... (5th millennium BC – 4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC - other millennia) Events City of Ur in Mesopotamia (40th century BC). ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ...

Kazanas (2000) in a polemic against the "Aryan Invasion Theory" suggests a date as early as 3100 BC, based on an identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River as the Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. Being a polemic against mainstream scholarship, this is of course in diametral opposition to views in mainstream historical linguistics, which assumes a date as late as 3000 BC for the age of late Proto-Indo-European itself. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Sarasvati River is an ancient river that is mentioned in Hindu texts. ... The Ghaggar is a seasonal river in India, flowing when water is available from monsoon rains. ... Today, Lexicostatistics is a subfield of Quantitative Linguistics. ... The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, believed to have been spoken around 4000 BC in Central Asia (according to the Kurgan hypothesis) or millennia before that in Anatolia (according to the Anatolian hypothesis). ...

More recent Indian views

The Hindu perception of the Rigveda has moved away from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, instances of animal sacrifice are not seen as literal slaughtering but as transcendental processes. The Rigvedic view is seen to consider the universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: lower (related to objects, beset with paradoxes) and higher (related to the perceiving subject, free of paradoxes). Swami Dayananda, who started the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have emphasized a spiritual (adhyatimic) interpretation of the book. Sacrifice is the practice of offering food, or the lives of animals or people to the gods, as an act of propitiation or worship. ... In philosophy, transcendental/transcendence, has three different but related primary meanings, all of them derived from the words literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond: one that originated in Ancient philosophy, one in Medieval philosophy and one in modern philosophy. ... Swami Dayananda Saraswati (स्‍वामी दयानन्‍द सरस्‍वती) (1824 - 1883) is an important Hindu religious scholar born in Gujarat, India. ... Arya Samaj (Aryan Society or Society of Nobles) is a Hindu reform movement in India that was founded by Swami Dayananda in 1875. ... Śrī Aurobindo Śrī Aurobindo (August 15, 1872–December 5, 1950) was an Indian nationalist, scholar, poet, Hindu mystic, Evolutionary philosopher, yogi and guru. ...

The Sarasvati river, lauded in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration (termed "Aryan Invasion Theory") vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation, a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda,in his "The Orion" (1893) claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his "Arctic Home in the Vedas" (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the Ice Age. The Sarasvati River is an ancient river that is mentioned in Hindu texts. ... The Hakra is the dried-out channel of a river in Pakistan that until about 2000 BC - 1500 BC was the continuation of the Ghaggar River in India. ... (Redirected from 2600 BC) (27th century BC - 26th century BC - 25th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) Events 2900 - 2334 BC – Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... (Redirected from 1900 BC) (20th century BC - 19th century BC - 18th century BC - other centuries) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events Hittite empire in Anatolia 1829 - 1818 BC -- Egyptian-Nubian war 1818 BC -- Egyptian Campaign in Palestine 1813 BC -- Amorite Conquest of Northern Mesopotamia 1806 BC... The Helmand River: Avestan: HaÄ“tumant rich in dams (also Helmend, Helmund, Hirmand or Tarnak) is the longest river in Afghanistan. ... Indo-Aryan migration refers to the theory of migration and expansion of the Indo-Aryans during 1500 BCE or earlier. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River and the Vedic Sarasvati River in present-day Pakistan. ... Hindutva (Hinduness, a word coined by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in his 1923 pamphlet entitled Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? ) is used to describe movements advocating Hindu nationalism. ... Amal Kiran (b. ... Shrikant G. Talageri, born in 1958, is an Indian author & a bank clerk in his day-job. He is the author of a book on the Rigveda and on the Aryan Invasion Theory. His works include THE RIGVEDA - A Historical Analysis. ... Subhash Kak (born March 26, 1947, Srinagar, Kashmir) is Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering and Professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science Programs at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. ... Bal Gangadhar Tilak, was an Indian nationalist, social reformer and freedom fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years For the animated movie, see Ice Age (movie). ...

Notes

1. ^ The earliest surviving manuscripts date to the 11th century.
2. ^ There is some confusion with the term "Veda", which is traditionally applied to the texts associated with the samhita proper, such as Brahmanas or Upanishads. In English usage, the term Rigveda is usually used to refer to the Rigveda samhita alone, and texts like the Aitareya-Brahmana are not considered "part of the Rigveda" but rather "associated with the Rigveda" in the tradition of a certain shakha.
3. ^ Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000. It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BC. It cannot be ruled out that archaic elements of the Rigveda go back to only a few generations after this time, but philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium.
4. ^ Oldenberg (p. 379) places it near the end of the Brahmana period, seeing that the older Brahmanas still contain pre-normalized Rigvedic citations. The Brahmana period is later than the composition of the samhitas of the other Vedas, stretching for about the 9th to 7th centuries. This would mean that the redaction of the texts as preserved was completed in roughly the 7th century BC. The EIEC (p. 306) likewise gives a 7th century date.
5. ^ The Satapatha Brahmana refers to Vidagdha Sakalya without discussing anything related to the Padapatha, and no grammatical work refers to Vidagdha as a padakara. But the Brahmanda Purana and the Vayu Purana say that he was the Padakara of the RV. The Satapatha Brahmana is older than the Aitareya Aranyaka. The Aitareya Aranyaka is generally dated to the 7th century BCE. Jha, Vashishtha Narayan. 1992. A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha. Sri Satguru Publications. Delhi
6. ^ The Rkpratisakhya of Saunaka also refers to Sthavira Sakalya. Jha, Vashishtha Narayan. 1992. A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha. Sri Satguru Publications. Delhi
7. ^ There is however mention of ApUpa, PuroLAS and Odana in the Rig Veda, terms that, at least in later texts, refer to rice dishes, see Talageri (2000)
8. ^ The term "ayas" (=metal) occurs in the Rigveda, but there is no positive evidence that it refers to iron or not. "It should be clear that any controversy regarding the meaning of ayas in the Rgveda or the problem of the Rgvedic familiarity or unfamilarity with iron is pointless. There is no positive evidence either way. It can mean both copper-bronze and iron and, strictly on the basis of the contexts, there is no reason to choose between the two." Chakrabarti, D.K. The Early Use of Iron in India (1992) Oxford University Press
9. ^ summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation
10. ^ e.g. Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1]; Elst, Koenraad (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 8186471774.; Bryant, Edwin and Laurie L. Patton (2005) The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge/Curzon.

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit ब्राह्मण) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... The Upanishads (; Devanagari ) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most forms of Hinduism. ... The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala school. ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture or EIEC, edited by James P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, was published in 1997 by Fitzroy Dearborn. ... The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages. ... The term Indo-Iranian includes all speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, i. ... The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture or EIEC, edited by James P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, was published in 1997 by Fitzroy Dearborn. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... The Vayu Purana is a Shaiva Purana, dedicated to Vayu (the wind), containing some 24,000 shlokas. ... Klaus Klostermaier (born 1933 in Munich, Germany) is a researcher on Hinduism and Indian history and culture. ... Dr. Koenraad Elst was born in Leuven, Belgium, on 7 August 1959, into a Flemish Catholic family. ... Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate is a book by Koenraad Elst. ...

Editions

• Friedrich Max Müller, The Hymns of the Rigveda, with Sayana's commentary, London, 1849-75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890-92.
• Theodor Aufrecht, 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877.
• B. van Nooten und G. Holland, Rig Veda, a metrically restored text, Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1994.

Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (December 6, 1823 – October 28, 1900), more commonly known as Max Müller, was a German Orientalist, one of the founders of Indian studies, who virtually created the discipline of comparative religion. ... Sayana (सायण) was the great 14th century commentator on the Vedas. ... Simon Theodor Aufrecht (January 7, 1822–April 3, 1907) German indologist. ...

Translations

• Latin
  • F. Rosen, Rigvedae specimen, London, 1830
• French
  • A. Langlois, Paris 1948-51 ISBN 2720010294
• English
  • Ralph T.H. Griffith, Hymns of the Rig Veda (1896)
• German
  • Karl Friedrich Geldner, Der Rig-Veda: Aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche übersetzt Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33, 34, 35 (1951), reprint Harvard University Press (2003) ISBN 0674012267
• Russian
  • Tatyana Ya. Elizarenkova, Nauka, Moscow 1989-1999.

Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (1826-1906), scholar of indology, translated the vedic scriptures into English. ... Nauka is a Russian publisher of academic books and journals. ...

Bibliography

Commentary

• Sayana (14th century), ed. Müller 1849-75
• Sri Aurobindo: Hymns of the Mystic Fire (Commentary on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin ISBN 0-914955-22-5 [3]

Western philology Sayana (सायण) was the great 14th century commentator on the Vedas. ... Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo (Bangla: শ্রী অরবিন্দ, Sri Ôrobindo Sanskrit: श्री अरविन्द SrÄ« Aravinda) (August 15, 1872–December 5, 1950) was an Indian nationalist, scholar, poet, Hindu mystic, evolutionary philosopher, yogi and guru. ...

• Thomas Oberlies, Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien 1998.
• Oldenberg, Hermann: Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Berlin 1888; Wiesbaden 1982.
• — Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977
• — Vedic Hymns, The sacred books of the East vo,l. 46 ed. Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford 1897
• N. Kazanas, A new date for the Rgveda Philosophy and Chronology, (2000) ed. G C Pande & D Krishna, special issue of Journal of Indian Coucil of Philosophical Research (June, 2001)

Hindu Historical, Archaeoastronomy etc. Hermann Oldenberg (1854-1920), Buddhist scholar and Professor at Kiel (1898) and Göttingen (1908). ... Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (December 6, 1823 – October 28, 1900), more commonly known as Max Müller, was a German Orientalist, one of the founders of Indian studies, who virtually created the discipline of comparative religion. ...

• Frawley David: The Rig Veda and the History of India, 2001.(Aditya Prakashan), ISBN 81-7742-039-9
• Talageri, Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis,