Robert S. Shankland (1908–1982) was an American physicist and historian. The word physicist should not be confused with physician, which means medical doctor. ... A historian is a person who studies history. ...

Biography

Shankland was an undergraduate at the Case School for Applied Sciences from 1925-1929 and received his masters degree in 1933. He received his Ph.D. in 1935 for work on photon scattering with Arthur Compton at the University of Chicago. Shankland's other research included work on the ionosphere and standard frequency regulations from 1929-1930 with the US National Bureau of Standards, and work on sonar for submarine warfare in World War II. 1925 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1929 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1933 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1935 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Compton effect, observed by Arthur Compton in 1923, is the increase in wavelength which occurs when photons with energies of around 0. ... Arthur Holly Compton (September 10, 1892 – March 15, 1962) won the Nobel Prize in Physics (1927) for discovery of the effect named after him. ... The University of Chicago is a private co-educational university located in Chicago, Illinois. ... The ionosphere is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. ... Sine waves of various frequencies; the lower waves have higher frequencies than those above. ... As a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce’s Technology Administration, the National Institute of Standards (NIST) develops and promotes measurement, standards, and technology to enhance productivity, facilitate trade, and improve the quality of life. ... The F70 type frigates (here, La Motte-Picquet) are fitted with VDS (Variable Depth Sonar) type DUBV43 or DUBV43C tugged sonars Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation under water to navigate or to detect other watercraft. ... USS Los Angeles A submarine is a specialized watercraft that can operate underwater. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ...

Shankland's final report on the Albert Michelson's Irvine Ranch experiments was published in 1933. Shankland in the British journal Nature gave the historical background of how Einstein formulates the first two principles, in 1905, of the Special Theory of Relativity from the Michelson-Morley experiment. Shankland believed that the accepted direct explanation for the Michelson-Morley experiment is provided by the special theory of relativity given by Albert Einstein in 1905. Shankland recorded that Michelson's Santa Ana trip was to look at the science of the aether. Physicists consider the results of the tests on Mount Wilson more accurate. Computer analysis after Miller's death on the available data has proven that the shifts were statistically significant. The interferometry apparatus work continued from 1886 until July 1887 (including the buildings on the Case and Western Reserve campuses). Albert Abraham Michelson. ... Nature is one of the oldest and most reputable general-purpose scientific journals, first published on November 4, 1869. ... The word theory has a number distinct meanings depending on the context. ... The Michelson-Morley experiment, one of the most important and famous experiments in the history of physics, was performed in 1887 at what is now Case Western Reserve University, and is considered to be the first strong evidence against the theory of a luminiferous aether. ... Special relativity (SR) or the special theory of relativity is the physical theory published in 1905 by Albert Einstein. ... Portrait of Albert Einstein taken by Yousuf Karsh on February 11, 1948 Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. ... 1905 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Santa Ana is the Spanish-language name of Saint Anne, the mother of Mary, the mother of Jesus. ... The aether (also spelled ether) is a substance concept, historically used in science and philosophy. ... Mount Wilson lies in the San Gabriel Mountains in Southern California. ... In science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual, nominal, or some other reference, value. ... An analysis is a critical evaluation, usually made by breaking a subject (either material or intellectual) down into its constituent parts, then describing the parts and their relationship to the whole. ... A datum is a statement accepted at face value (a given). Data is the plural of datum. ... Statistics is the science and practice of developing knowledge through the use of empirical data expressed in quantitative form. ...

Analysis of the Miller Experiment

Shankland performed a debated analysis on how Dayton Miller's interferometric results could be caused by thermal fluctuations and therefore be consistent with special relativity; Shankland's explanation is now accepted by most mainstream scientists. He was in the physics department of Case Western Reserve University from 1940-1958 (becoming its chairman), worked on neutrino experiments with Argonne National Laboratory from 1953-1969, and had other interests including the history of relativity and architectural acoustics. Dayton Clarence Miller (March 13, 1866 - February 22, 1941) was an American physicist, astronomer, acoustician, and accomplished amateur flutist. ... A simple introduction to this subject is provided in Special relativity for beginners Special relativity(SR) or the special theory of relativity is the physical theory published in 1905 by Albert Einstein. ...

In 1925-1926, Dayton Miller performed interferometric observations at Mount Wilson, similar to the Michelson-Morley experiment, that appeared to reflect a measurable drift of the Earth through the luminiferous aether, in apparent contradiction with other experiments of that type and with relativity's prediction that no aether should be observable. Shankland believed that Dayton Miller's research was a major obstacle to and overshadowed any consideration of a Nobel Prize be awarded to Albert Einstein for his relativity theory. The Michelson-Morley experiment, one of the most important and famous experiments in the history of physics, was performed in 1887 at what is now Case Western Reserve University, and is considered to be the first strong evidence against the theory of a luminiferous aether. ... Earth, also known as the Earth or Terra, is the third planet outward from the Sun. ... The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a medium of aether that carries light In the late 19th century the luminiferous aether (light-bearing aether), or ether, was a substance postulated to be the medium for the propagation of light. ... Photographs of Nobel Prize Medals. ... Portrait of Albert Einstein taken by Yousuf Karsh on February 11, 1948 Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. ...

In 1955, Shankland published a paper analyzing Miller's data, arguing that "the small periodic fringe displacements found by Miller are due in part to statistical fluctuations in the readings of the fringe positions in a very difficult experiment" and "the remaining systematic effects are ascribed to local temperature conditions." Moreover, he argues that the thermal gradients responsible for the effects "were much more troublesome at Mount Wilson than those encountered by experimenters elsewhere, including Miller himself in his work done at Case in Cleveland." Thus a large, but indefinite number of, mainstream scientists today hold the conviction that any signal that Miller observed was the result of experimenter's bias, which was a common source of systematic error before modern experimental techniques were developed (ed, Miller did publish an early textbook on experimental techniques; cf., Dayton Miller, Ginn & Company, 1903). In a 1973 review paper on the experimental development of relativity, Shankland included an August 31, 1954 letter to him by Einstein agreeing with his analysis. (Shankland had sent Einstein a manuscript prior to its publication.) Einstein wrote: From Latin ex- + -periri (akin to periculum attempt). ... A scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ...

I thank you very much for sending me your careful study about the Miller experiments. Those experiments, conducted with so much care, merit, of course, a very careful statistical investigation. This is more so as the existence of a not trivial positive effect would affect very deeply the fundament of theoretical physics as it is presently accepted.

You have shown convincingly that the observed effect is outside the range of accidental deviations and must, therefore, have a systematic cause. You made it quite probable that this systematic cause has nothing to do with "ether-wind," but has to do with differences of temperature of the air traversed by the two light bundles which produced the bands of interference. Such an effect is indeed practically inevitable if the walls of the laboratory room have a not negligible difference in temperature.

It is one of the cases where the systematic errors are increasing quickly with the dimension of the apparatus.

In Shankland's re-analysis, no statistically significant signal for the existence of aether was found. The analysis is accepted by mainstream physicists, the denial in the existence of the aether is nearly universal, and Miller's observed signal was purportedly the result of experimenter's bias. Some believe that the "signal" that Miller observed in 1933 is actually composed of points that are an average of several hundred measurements each, and the magnitude of the signal is more than 10 times smaller than the resolution with which the measurements were recorded. Mainstream is a term most often applied in the arts—i. ... Experimenters bias is the phenomenon in experimental science by which the outcome of an experiment tends to be biased towards an expected by the human experimenter. ...

Nevertheless, there are scientists who argue that Shankland's analysis was incorrect and that Miller's results were inconsistent with standard relativity. For example, A. K. Timiriazev, R. A. Monti (Physics Essays 9, 1996) and M. Allais (Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences 327, 1999) later disproved Shankland's allegation. These arguments, however, have not been published in a more prestigious scientific journal, nor are they accepted widely by physicists. Dr. Maurice Allais statistical analysis of the thousands of interferometer measurements of Dayton Miller found a corresponding periodicity with the sidereal day, the equinoxes and other celestial events thus invalidating the Shankland rufutation of Miller's work. William Broad and Nicholas Wade (Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud in Science; 1983) have stated that scientists should have reviewed Miller's research more seriously, in lieu of incompetence and unprofessional conduct. _{[1] (http://physicsweb.org/article/world/15/12/2)} As of 2004, there has been more of Miller's papers from the possession of R. S. Shankland to surface and they are awaiting future analysis. Maurice Allais (born May 31, 1911) was the 1988 winner of The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources. ... Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links and references

• AIP International Catalog of Sources, summary of Robert S. Shankland (http://libserv.aip.org:81/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!4886~!0&profile=icos) audio archive.
• James DeMeo, "Dayton Miller and the Ether-Drift (http://www.orgonelab.org/miller2.htm)"
• Allais, Maurice, "The experiments of Dayton C. Miller (1925 - 1926) and the Theory of Relativity (http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/media12-1.htm)". 21st century - Science & Technology. Spring 1998.
  • "The experiments by Dayton C Miller (1925-1926) and relativity theory (http://www.s-line.de/homepages/keppler/allais2.htm)". (German)
• Allais, Maurice, "Very significant regularities in the interferometric observations of Dayton C. Miller 1925-1926 (http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/media14-1.htm)". French Academy of Sciences, January 23rd, 1997.
• Allais, Maurice, "New very significant regularities in the interferometric observations of Dayton C. Miller 1925-1926 (http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/media15-1.htm)". French Academy of Sciences, April 26th, 1999.
• Allais, Maurice, "The origin of the very significant regularities displayed in the interferometric observations of Dayton C. Miller 1925-1926: temperatures effects or space anisotropy (http://allais.maurice.free.fr/English/media16-1.htm)?". French Academy of Sciences, December 2000
• "The Effect of solar motion upon the fringe-shifts in a Michelson-Morley interferometer a la Miller (http://www.ensmp.fr/aflb/AFLB-272/aflb272p463.pdf)". Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie, Volume 27 no 3, 2002 463. (PDF)
• "The Michelson Speed of Light Experiment at the Irvine Ranch (http://oisc.net/Speed_of_Light.htm)"
• Time and Eternity (http://custance.org/Library/Volume6/) -- Chapter1 (http://custance.org/Library/Volume6/Part_I/chapter1.html)
• Time : the scientific account (http://www.sciforums.com/archive/index.php/t-1171)

• R. S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and G. Kuerti, "New analysis of the interferometric observations of Dayton C. Miller," Rev. Mod. Phys. 27, 167–178 (1955).
• R. S. Shankland, "Michelson's role in the development of relativity," Applied Optics 12 (10), 2280 (1973).

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Appendix: partial list of Shankland's publications

• R. S. Shankland, "An apparent failure of the photon theory of scattering," Phys. Rev. 49, 8-13 (1936).
• R. S. Shankland, J. W. Coltman, "Departure of overtones of vibrating wire from true harmonic series," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 10 (3), 161-166 (1939).
• R. S. Shankland, "Analysis of pulses by means of harmonic analyzer," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 12 (3), 383-386 (1941).
• E. W. Samuel, R. S. Shankland, "Sound field of Straubel X-cut crystal," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 22 (5), 589-592 (1950).
• R. S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and G. Kuerti, "New analysis of the interferometric observations of Dayton C. Miller," Rev. Mod. Phys. 27, 167–178 (1955).
• H. J. Ormestad, R. S. Shankland, A. H. Benade, "Reverberation time characteristics of Severance Hall," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 32 (3), 371-375 (1960).
• R. S. Shankland, Atomic and Nuclear Physics (Macmillan: New York, 1960).
• R. S. Shankland, "Michelson-Morley experiment," Am. J. Phys. 32 (1), 16-35 (1964).
• R. S. Shankland, "Quality of reverberation," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 43 (3), 426-430 (1968).
• R. S. Shankland, "Michelson's role in the development of relativity," Applied Optics 12 (10), 2280 (1973).
• R. S. Shankland, "Conversations with Einstein," Am. J. Physics 41 (7), 895-901 (1973).
• R. S. Shankland, "Acoustics of Greek theaters," Physics Today 26 (10), 30 (1973).
• R. S. Shankland, "Michelson and his interferometer," Physics Today 27 (4), 37 (1974)
• R. S. Shankland, "Michelson: America's first Nobel-prize winner in science," Bulletin of the American Physical Society 21 (4), 601-602 (1976).
• R. S. Shankland, "Architectural Acoustics in America to 1930," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61 (2), 250-254 (1977).
• R. S. Shankland, "Acoustical designing for performers," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 65 (1), 140-144 (1979).
• R. S. Shankland, "Einstein, Albert — In Remembrance," Biography — An Interdisciplinary Quarterly 2 (3), 190-200 (1979)