It has been suggested that Civitas be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

The toga was the characteristic garment of the Roman citizen. Roman women (who were not considered citizens) and Non-citizens were not allowed to wear one.

Image File history File links Mergefrom. ... In the history of the Roman empire, civitas (pl. ... Image File history File links Toga_Illustration. ... Image File history File links Toga_Illustration. ... Marcus Aurelius wearing a toga. ...

Overview

Citizenship in the time of Ancient Rome was a privileged status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance.

It is hard to offer meaningful generalities across the entire Roman period, as the nature and availability of citizenship was affected by legislation, for example, the Lex Iulia. In the Roman Republic and later in the Roman Empire, people resident within the Roman state could roughly be divided into several classes: This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

• Slaves were considered property and had only certain very limited rights as granted by statute. They could essentially be sold, tortured, maimed, raped and killed at the whim of their owners. The killing of a slave was a matter of property rather than a crime against a human being. Despite this, a freed slave, a freedman, was granted a form of full Roman citizenship.^[1] It was the exceptional feature of ancient Rome that all slaves freed by Roman owners automatically received a limited Roman citizenship.
• The natives who lived in territories conquered by Rome, citizens of Roman client states and Roman allies could be given a limited form of Roman citizenship such as the Latin Right. This amounted essentially to a second-class citizenship within the Roman state. The Latin Right is the most widely known but there were many other of such Rights.
• A Roman citizen enjoyed the full range of benefits that flowed from his status. A citizen could, under certain exceptional circumstances, be deprived of his citizenship.
• Women were a class apart whose status and rights in Roman society varied over time. However, they were never accorded all the rights of citizens; they were not allowed to vote, or stand for civil or public office, although they did have the right to own property. They were, at least in theory, subject to the almost complete power of their paterfamilias, in many legal areas having rights barely more than those of slaves. Inside of Republican high society the marriages were used to cement political alliances and therefore combined by the paterfamilias. The paterfamilias could even force a divorce and then remarry his daughter to another politician.

Slave redirects here. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... poop. ... The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a status given to a Roman colony intermediate between full Roman citizenship and not being a citizen at all (peregrines or provincials). ... The pater familias was the eldest or ranking male in a Roman household. ...

Methods to obtain Roman citizenship

• Roman citizenship was granted automatically to every male child born in a legal marriage of a Roman citizen.
• Freed slaves were given a limited form of Roman citizenship; they were still obliged in some aspects to their former owner who automatically became their patron.
• The sons of freed slaves became full citizens.
• Auxilia were rewarded with Roman citizenship after their term of service. Their children also became citizens.
• Only Roman citizens could enlist in the Roman Legion. However an enlisted Roman legionary was deprived of many of his rights. He could not legally marry, and therefore all his children born during his military service were denied citizenship, unless and until he married their mother after his discharge.
• Some individuals received Roman citizenship as a reward for outstanding service to the Roman republic (later, the empire).
• One could also buy citizenship, but at a very high price.
• People who were from the Latin states were gradually granted citizenship.
• Rome gradually granted citizenship to whole provinces; the third-century Constitutio Antoniniana granted it to all free male inhabitants of the Empire.

Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... Legion redirects here. ... Roman legionaries, 1st century. ... The Constitutio Antoniniana (Latin: Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus) was an edict issued in 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla. ...

Rights given

The rights available to individual citizen of Rome varied over time, according to their place of origin, and their service to the state. They also varied under Roman law according to the classification of the individual within the state. Various legal classes were defined by the individual legal rights that they enjoyed. However, the possible rights available to citizens and non-citizens with whom Roman law addressed are:

• Butty But head: The right to vote in the Comitia Tributa (Tribal assembly).
• Jus Honorum: The right to stand for civil or public office.
• Jus Commercii: The right to make legal contracts, and to hold property, as a Roman citizen. The jus gentium (see below) also granted right of contract and property to non-citizens, but these rights differed from the rights of the Roman citizen.
• Jus Gentium: The jus gentium, developed in the third century BC, was a legal recognition of the growing international scope of Roman affairs, and the need for Roman law to deal with situations between Roman citizens and foreign persons. The jus gentium was therefore a Roman legal codification of the the widely accepted international law of the time, and was based on highly developed commercial law of the Greek city-states and of other maritime powers. ^[2] The rights afforded by the jus gentium were considered to be held by all persons, regardless of citizenship.
• Jus Connubii: The right to have a lawful marriage with a Roman citizen, to have the legal rights of the paterfamilias over the family, and to have the children of any such marriage be counted as Roman citizens.
• Jus Migrationis: The right to preserve one's level of citizenship upon relocation to a polis of comparable status. For example, members of the cives romani (see below) maintained their full civitas when they migrated to a Roman colony with full rights under the law: a colonia civium Romanorum. Latins also had this right, and maintained their jus Latii if they relocated to a different Latin state or Latin colony (Latina colonia). This right did not preserve one's level of citizenship should one relocate to a colony of lesser legal status; full Roman citizens relocating to a Latina colonia were reduced to the level of the jus Latii, and such a migration and reduction in status had to be a voluntary act.
• The right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations, especially local rules and regulations.^[3]
• The right to sue in the courts.
• The right to have a legal trial (to appear before a proper court and to defend oneself).
• The right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates and to appeal the lower court decisions.
• A Roman citizen could not be tortured or whipped, nor could he receive the death penalty, unless he was found guilty of treason.
• If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to die at the cross. (Despite being found guilty of the same crime, Paul of Tarsus and Simon Peter faced different fates. Paul was beheaded, while Peter, not being a Roman citizen, was whipped and then crucified.)

Roman citizenship was required in order to enlist in the Roman legions, but this was sometimes ignored. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honours Emperor Institutions and Law Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      The Roman assemblies were the Comitia Calata, the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa. ... This article is about law in society. ... Jus gentium, Latin for law of nations, was the part of Roman law that the Roman Empire applied to its dealings with foreigners, especially provincial subjects. ... (4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean Rome conquers Spain Great Wall of China begun Indian traders regularly visited Arabia Scythians occupy... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Matrimony redirects here. ... The pater familias was the eldest or ranking male in a Roman household. ... A polis (πόλις, pronunciation pol-is) plural: poleis (πόλεις) is a city, a city-state and also citizenship and body of citizens. ... Colonies in antiquity were city-states founded from a mother-city, not from a territory-at-large. ... For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation). ... Whipping on a post Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, whip) the human body. ... Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. ... For other uses, see Treason (disambiguation) or Traitor (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Crucifixion (disambiguation). ... Paul of Tarsus (b. ... According to tradition, Peter was crucified upside-down, as shown in this painting by Caravaggio. ...

Classes of citizenship

The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state:

Cives Romani

The Cives Romani were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. Cives Romani were sub-divided into two classes: The non optimo jure who held the rights of jus commercii and jus connubii (rights of property and marriage), and the optimo jure, who also held these rights as well as the additional rights of jus suffragiorum and jus honorum (the rights to vote and to hold office).

Latini

Further information: Latin League and Latin Right

The Latini were a class of citizens who held the Latin Rights (jus Latii), or the rights of jus commercii and ius migrationis, but not the jus connubii. The term Latini originally referred to the Latins, citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War, but eventually became a legal description rather than a nationalistic or ethnic one. Freedmen slaves, those of the Cives Romani convicted of crimes, or citizens settling Latin colonies could be given this status under the law. The Latin League was an alliance of Rome and the many other cities and villages in and around the area of Latium. ... The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a status given to a Roman colony intermediate between full Roman citizenship and not being a citizen at all (peregrines or provincials). ... The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a status given to a Roman colony intermediate between full Roman citizenship and not being a citizen at all (peregrines or provincials). ... The Latins were an ancient Italic people who migrated to central Italy, (Latium Vetus - Old Latium), in the 2nd millennium B.C., maybe from the Adriatic East Coast and Balkanic Area, perhaps from pressures by Illyrian peoples. ... The Latin League was an alliance of Rome and the many other cities and villages in and around the area of Latium. ... The Latin War (340-338 BC) was a conflict between the Roman Republic and its neighbors the Latin peoples of ancient Italy. ... A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. ...

Socii

Further information: Foederati, Social War, and Lex Julia

Socii or Foederati were citizens of states which had treaty obligations with Rome, typically agreements under which certain legal rights of the state's citizens under Roman law were exchanged for agreed upon levels of military service, i.e. the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldiers for the Roman legions from those states. However, Foederati states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status. Foederatus early in the history of the Roman Republic identified one of the tribes bound by treaty (foedus), who were neither Roman colonies nor had they been granted Roman citizenship (civitas) but were expected to provide a contingent of fighting men when trouble arose. ... Template:Campaignbox Social War This article is about the conflict between Rome and her allies between 91 and 88 BC The Social War (also called the Italian War or the Marsic War, Social come from Socii meaning ¨Allies¨) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and... Lex Julia (or: Lex Iulia, plural: Leges Juliae/Leges Iuliae) are ancient Roman laws, introduced by any member of the Julian family. ... Legion redirects here. ...

Growing dissatisfaction with the rights afforded to the Socii, and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War) led eventually to the Social War of 91–88 BC. The passing of the Lex Julia (more specifically the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda) in 90 BC granted the rights of the cives romani to all latini and socii states that had not participated in the Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was eventually extended to all of the Socii states following the conclusion of the war, effectively eliminating socii and latini as legal and citizenship definitions. The Jugurthine War (122-105 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and Jugurtha, the renegade king of the African client state of Numidia. ... Combatants Roman Republic Cimbri, Teutons Commanders Marius, Lutatius Catulus, Servilius Caepio, Mallius Maximus, Papirius Carbo Boiorix, Teutobod Lugius Strength Varied, ranging from around 40,000 to over 80,000 Varied but estimated at around 300,000 maxium Casualties Estimated between 150-180,000 300,000, Both tribes annihalated The Cimbrian... Combatants Roman Republic Italian allies of the Marsi, Samnites, Marrucini, Vestini, Paeligni, Frentani, Picentes Praetutii, Hirpini Commanders Publius Rutilius Lupus , Gaius Marius, Pompeius Strabo, Lucius Julius Caesar, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Titus Didius, Lucius Porcius Cato Quintus Poppaedius Silo, Gaius Papius Mutilus, Herius Asinius, Publius Vettius Scato, Publius Praesenteius, Gaius Vidacilius... Lex Julia (or: Lex Iulia, plural: Leges Juliae/Leges Iuliae) are ancient Roman laws, introduced by any member of the Julian family. ...

Provinciales

Provinciales were those persons who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the Foederati, essentially having only the rights of the jus gentium.

Peregrini

A Peregrinus (plural Peregrini) was originally the term used to describe any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the Cives Romani. With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term peregrini included the those of the latini, socii, and provinciales, as well as those subjects of foreign states. Peregrinus was the term used during the early Roman empire, from 30BC to 212AD, to denote a free provincial subject of the empire who was not a Roman citizen. ...

Abrogation of citizenship rights

Further information: In Verrem

All these rights were (as everywhere down the ages, and even today) sometimes ignored. For example, the definition of the crime "treason" varied largely from time to time. In Verremis a series of speeches made by Marcus Tullius Cicero, // Background to the Case Main article: Gaius Verres Gaius Verres was the Governor of Sicily in the latter half of the 70s BC, Courtroom politics Verres was able to secure the services of the finest orator of his day... For other uses, see Definition (disambiguation). ...

The governorship of Gaius Verres is perhaps the most blatant example how all these rights could simply be ignored by the State. Apparently, Verres (then governor of Sicilia) being informed that a local Roman citizen would travel to Rome in order to complain about the various abuses (high taxes, and systematic plunder of the entire province) ordered the arrest of the citizen. As the citizen demanded a trial (which he could later appeal and transfer to Rome), Verres denied it under the accusation of treason. Verres later ordered him flogged (torture), then crucified (death). The citizen repeated constantly: "I am a Roman citizen" but no one intervened. When (much later) Verres was prosecuted by Cicero, he simply fled Italy before this incident was aired in open court, essentially pleading nolo contendere to the charge. Gaius Verres (c. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... Nolo contendere, in criminal trials, in some common law jurisdictions, is a plea where the defendant neither admits nor disputes a charge, serving as an alternative to a pleading of guilty or not guilty. ...

Citizenship as a tool of Romanization

Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a "minor" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin Right was one of them). The promise of improved standing within the Roman "sphere of influence", and the rivalry for standing with one's neighbours, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the status quo of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence. The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a status given to a Roman colony intermediate between full Roman citizenship and not being a citizen at all (peregrines or provincials). ...

The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas (perhaps one of the most important reasons for the success of Rome). Romanization was a gradual process of cultural assimilation, in which the conquered barbarians (non-Greco-Romans) gradually adopted and largely replaced their own native culture (which in many cases were quite developed, like the culture of the Gauls or Carthage) with the culture of their conquerors - the Romans. ...

As a precursor to this, Alexander the Great had tried to "mingle" his Macedonians and other Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire, but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors. The idea was to assimilate, to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or his sons) into a Roman citizen. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of a conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots, Rome made the "known" (conquered) world Roman. For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Persia redirects here. ... Not to be confused with Intermarriage. ... For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ...

The Social War (in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome) ended gradually as Rome granted citizenship to all Italian freemen (with the exception of Gallia Cisalpina). After AD 212, all freemen in the Empire were granted citizenship by an imperial edict (the Constitutio Antoniniana) of Emperor Caracalla. Combatants Roman Republic Italian allies of the Marsi, Samnites, Marrucini, Vestini, Paeligni, Frentani, Picentes Praetutii, Hirpini Commanders Publius Rutilius Lupus , Gaius Marius, Pompeius Strabo, Lucius Julius Caesar, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Titus Didius, Lucius Porcius Cato Quintus Poppaedius Silo, Gaius Papius Mutilus, Herius Asinius, Publius Vettius Scato, Publius Praesenteius, Gaius Vidacilius... Province of the Roman Republic, in modern-day northern Italy. ... Events Roman Emperor Caracalla decrees that freemen throughout the Roman Empire become Roman Citizens. ... The Constitutio Antoniniana (Latin: Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus) was an edict issued in 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla. ... Caracalla (April 4, 186 – April 8, 217) was Roman Emperor from 211 – 217. ...

References

• "The Complete Roman Army" by Adrian Goldsworthy edited by Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-05124-0
• Roman citizenship
• Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard & Alexandr Koptev.
• Catholic Resources

Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969) is a British historian and military writer. ...

See also

• Constitution of the Roman Republic

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