Rudolf Clausius - physicist and mathematician

Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (January 2, 1822 – August 24, 1888), was a German physicist and mathematician. From German This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... From German This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... January 2 is the second day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1822 (MDCCCXXII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... August 24 is the 236th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (237th in leap years), with 129 days remaining. ... 1888 (MDCCCLXXXVIII) is a leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. ... A physicist is a scientist trained in physics. ... Leonhard Euler is considered by many people to be one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is mathematics. ...

Clausius was one of the founders of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, on the mechanical theory of heat, published in 1850, first stated the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. ... Sadi Carnot may refer to: Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), French physicist Marie François Sadi Carnot (1837-1894), president of the third French Republic This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... A heat engine is an engine that uses heat to produce mechanical work by carrying a working substance through a cyclic process. ... 1850 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The second law of thermodynamics (Second Law hereinafter) states that the entropy of any totally isolated system not at thermal equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value. ... 1865 (MDCCCLXV) is a common year starting on Sunday. ... For other uses of the term entropy, see Entropy (disambiguation) The thermodynamic entropy S, often simply called the entropy in the context of thermodynamics, is a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do work. ...

Life

Rudolf Clausius started his education at the school of his father. After a few years, he went to the Gymnasium in Stettin. Clausius graduated from the University of Berlin in 1844 where he studied Mathematics and Physics with, among others, Heinrich Magnus, Johann Dirichlet and Jakob Steiner. He also studied History with Leopold von Ranke. In 1847, he got his doctorate from the University of Halle on optical effects in the earth's atmosphere. He then became professor of physics at the Royal Artillery and Engineering School in Berlin and Privatdozent at the Berlin university. In 1855 he became professor at the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, where he stayed until 1867. In that year, he moved to Würzburg and two years later, in 1869 to Bonn. Gymnasium can have following meanings: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)—an educational and sporting institution in Ancient Greece Gymnasium—a school of secondary education found in several European countries (approx. ... Motto: none Voivodship West Pomeranian Municipal government Rada miasta Szczecina Mayor Marian Jurczyk Area 301,3 km² Population  - city  - urban  - density 413 600 1372/km² Founded City rights 8th century 1243 Latitude Longitude 14°34E 53°26N Area code +48 91 Car plates ZS Twin towns Berlin-Kreuzberg... Berlin is the capital city and a single state of the Federal Republic of Germany. ... 1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Heinrich Gustav Magnus (May 2, 1802 - April 4, 1870) was a German chemist and physicist. ... Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (February 13, 1805 - May 5, 1859) was a German mathematician credited with the modern formal definition of a function. ... Jakob Steiner (18 March 1796 – April 1, 1863) was a Swiss mathematician. ... Leopold Von Ranke in 1877 Leopold von Ranke (December 21, 1795- May 23, 1886) was one of the greatest German historians of the 19th century, and is frequently considered the founder of scientific history. ... 1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Halle (also called Halle an der Saale in order to distinguish from Halle in North Rhine-Westphalia) is the largest town in the German Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt. ... 1855 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... ETH Zurich (from its German name Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, ETHZ) is the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland. ... Location within Switzerland (help· info) (German pronunciation IPA: ; in English often Zurich, without the umlaut) is the largest city in Switzerland (population: 366,145 in 2004; population of urban area: 1,091,732) and capital of the canton of Zürich. ... 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Würzburg is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany. ... 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Bonn is a city in Germany (19th largest), in the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia, located about 20 kilometres south of Cologne on the river Rhine in the north of the Siebengebirge. ...

In 1870 Clausius organized an ambulance corps in the Franco-Prussian War. He was wounded in battle, leaving him with a lasting disability. He was awarded the Iron Cross for his services. 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A stylized version of the Iron Cross, the emblem of the German Armed Forces The Iron Cross (German: Eisernes Kreuz) is a military decoration of the Kingdom of Prussia, and later of Germany, which was established by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and first awarded on 10 March 1813. ...

His wife, Adelheid Rimpham, died in childbirth in 1875, leaving him to raise their six children. He continued to teach, but had less time for research thereafter. 1875 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ...

Work

Clausius' PhD thesis on the refraction of light proposed that we see a blue sky during the day, and various shades of red at sunrise and sunset (among other phenomena) due to reflection and refraction of light. Later, Thomson would show that it was in fact due to the scattering of light, but regardless, Clausius use a far more mathematical approach than his predecessors. Thomson has several meanings: Thomson SA, formerly known as Thomson Multimedia, a French electronics manufacturer and media services provider. ...

His most famous paper, "Über die bewegende Kraft der Wärme" was published in 1850, and dealt with the mechanical theory of heat. In this paper, he showed that there was a contradiction between Carnot's principle and the concept of conservation of energy. Clausius restated the two laws of thermodynamics to overcome this contradiction (the third law was developed by Walther Nernst, during the years 1906–1912). This paper caused his scientific career to take off. 1850 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Sadi Carnot may refer to: Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), French physicist Marie François Sadi Carnot (1837-1894), president of the third French Republic This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy (including potential energy) in a closed system remains constant. ... The laws of thermodynamics, in principle, describe the specifics for the transport of heat and work in thermodynamic processes. ... The third law of thermodynamics (hereinafter Third Law) states that as a system approaches the zero absolute temperature (hereinafter ZAT), all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value. ... Walther Nernst. ...

In 1857, Clausius contributed to the field of kinetic theory after refining August Krönig's very simple gas-kinetic model to include translational, rotational and vibrational molecular motions. In this same work he introduced the concept of 'Mean free path' of a particle. 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Kinetic theory, or kinetic-molecular theory, or collision theory attempts to explain the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. ... August Karl Krönig (1822 - 1879) was a German chemist and physicist who published an account of the kinetic theory of gases in 1856, probably after reading a paper by John James Waterston. ... For sound waves in an enclosure, the mean free path is the average distance the wave travels between reflections off of the enclosures walls. ...

Clausius deduced the Clausius-Clapeyron relation from thermodynamics. This relation, which is a way of characterizing the phase transition between two states of matter such as solid and liquid, had originally been developed in 1834 by Émile Clapeyron. The Clausius-Clapeyron relation, in thermodynamics, is a way of characterising the phase transition between two states of matter, such as solid and liquid. ... Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. ... In physics, a phase transition, (or phase change) is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another. ... In jewelry, a solid gold piece is the alternative to gold-filled or gold-plated jewelry. ... A liquid will assume the shape of its container. ... 1834 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Emile_Clapeyron Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron (February 26, 1799 - January 28, 1864) was an French engineer and physicist, considered as one of the founders of thermodynamics. ...

Entropy

Main article: history of entropy

In his "Abhandlungen über die mechanische Wärmetheorie, Zweite Abtheilung", published in 1867, Clausius first gave a mathematical version of the concept of entropy, and gave it its name. He used the now abandoned unit 'Clausius' (symbol: Cl) for entropy. The history of entropy, essentially, is the development of ideas set forth to theoretically understand why a certain amount of functionable energy released from combustion reactions is always lost to dissipation or friction, i. ... 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Ice melting - a classic example of entropy increasing In thermodynamics, thermodynamic entropy (or simply entropy) is an important state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. ...

1 Cl = 1 cal/deg = 4,1868 Joule/Kelvin (J/K)

A calorie is a unit of measurement for energy. ... This article describes degree as a unit of temperature. ... The joule (symbol: J) is the SI unit of energy, or work with base units of kg·m²/s² (N·m). ... The kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature, and is one of the seven SI base units. ...

Tributes

• He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1868 and received its Copley Medal in 1879.
• He received the Huygens Medal in 1870.
• He received the Poncelet Prize in 1883.
• He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Würzburg in 1882.
• The Clausius crater on the Moon was named in his honor.

... 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Friday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... The Copley Medal is a scientific award for work in any field of science, the highest award granted by the Royal Society of London. ... 1879 (MDCCCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer 1629 - 1695, son of Constantijn Huygens Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer 1596 - 1687, father of Christiaan Huygens Cassini-Huygens, mission to Saturn and Titan Huygens probe is the portion of the Cassini-Huygens mission which landed on Saturns moon Titan on... 1870 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Poncelet may refer to: Christian Poncelet, the politician; Jean-Victor Poncelet, the mathematician. ... 1883 (MDCCCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Würzburg is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany. ... 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Clausius is a lunar crater that is located in the southwest part of the Moon, in the small lunar mare designated Lacus Excellentiae. ... Bulk composition of the moons mantle and crust estimated, weight percent Oxygen 42. ...

Quotes

"The total energy of the universe is constant; the total entropy is continually increasing." -- Rudolf Clausius The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... Ice melting - a classic example of entropy increasing In thermodynamics, thermodynamic entropy (or simply entropy) is an important state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. ...

References

• Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971). From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age. London: Heinemann. ISBN 0435541501.
• Clausius biography in The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
• Revival of Kinetic Theory by Clausius