Russian (русский язык /'ru.skʲi jɪ.'zɨk/ ^{To play the audio file do not click on the -image. Look for a Listen-link near this icon. Click on the back button of your browser to go back to the article and try again. File links The following pages link to this file: Alfred Nobel Adalbert of Prague...  listen?}) is the most widely spoken of the The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) comprise the languages of the Slavic peoples. They form a distinct group of Indo-European languages, with speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia. Branches Scholars divide... Slavic languages.

Russian belongs to the group of Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Indo-European languages include some 443 (SIL estimate) languages and dialects spoken by about three billion people, including most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia, which belong to a single superfamily. Contemporary languages in this superfamily include Bengali, English... Indo-European languages, and is therefore related to The Sanskrit language ( संस्कृता वाक्) is one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European language family and is not only a classical language, but also an official language of India. It has a similar position in India to... Sanskrit, The Greek language (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. Ancient Greek in its various forms was the language both of classical Greek civilisation and of the origins of Christianity, and... Greek, and Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. It is said... Latin, as well as the modern Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Germanic languages form one of the branches of the Indo-European (IE) language family, spoken by the Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire. They are characterised by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously... Germanic, The Romance languages, also called Romanic languages, are a subfamily of the Italic languages, specifically the descendants of the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people evolving in different areas after the break-up of the Roman Empire. History The term Romance comes from the Romance word romance or... Romance, and Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages. They were spoken across western Europe in ancient times, but are now limited to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the peninsula of Brittany in France. There are four main groups... Celtic languages, including The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. It is the third most common first language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002. English has lingua franca status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence... English, French (français, langue française) is one of the most important Romance languages, outnumbered in speakers only by Spanish and Portuguese. In 1999 French was the 11th most spoken language in the world being spoken by about 77 million people (called Francophones) as a mother tongue, and... French, and Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. Irish (Gaeilge) is a Goidelic language spoken in Ireland and in small communities in Canada and Argentina. Irish is constitutionally recognised as the first official language... Irish. Written examples are attested from the 10th century onwards.

While it preserves much of its ancient synthetic-inflexional structure and a This article or section should be merged with Proto-Slavic language Common Slavonic is the common language spoken by the Slavs, which eventually broke up into the ancestors of the modern Slavic languages. The Common Slavic language spoken before the 6th century is reconstructed, as there are no documents written... Common Slavonic word base, modern Russian shares a large stock of the international vocabulary for politics, science, and technology. A language of political importance in the twentieth century, Russian is one of the official languages of the The United Nations, or UN, is an international organization made up of 191 states established in 1945. With the notable exception of the Holy See/ Vatican City (which is the sole permanent observer state), all countries recognized by the CIA as first-level sovereign entities, are members. Other entities recognized... United Nations.

NOTE. Russian is written in a non-Latin script. All examples below are in the The Cyrillic alphabet (or azbuka, from the old name of the first letters) is an alphabet used to write six natural Slavic languages (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian) and many other languages of the former Soviet Union, Asia and Eastern Europe. * archaic letters Origins The plan of the... Cyrillic alphabet, with transcriptions in This article is about the alphabet officially used in linguistics. The NATO phonetic alphabet (alpha bravo) had informally been called the International Phonetic Alphabet. The International Phonetic Alphabet is a phonetic alphabet used by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes... IPA.

Classification

Russian is a The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) comprise the languages of the Slavic peoples. They form a distinct group of Indo-European languages, with speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia. Branches Scholars divide... Slavic language, in the Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. By extension, it became a collective name for cultures and religions associated with these languages. Hypothetically, these cultures arose from the expansion of an ancient people, the Proto-Indo-Europeans... Indo-European family.

From the point of view of the spoken language, its closest relatives are Belarusian is the language of the Belarusian nation. It is one of the three East Slavic languages and is spoken in and around Belarus. It is also known as Belarusan, Byelorussian, Belorussian, or Belarusian. The word Byelorussian is an adjective derived from the transliteration of the Russian name of the... Belarusian and Ukrainian is an East Slavic language, one of three members of this language group, the other two being Russian and Belarusian. Written Ukrainian bears resemblances to these two languages, but with several notable differences. Historically, Belarusian and Ukrainian diverged from Old or Middle Ruthenian language. Spoken literary Ukrainian, however finds... Ukrainian, the other two national languages in the This article or section should be merged with List of East Slavic languages The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of Slavic languages, currently spoken in Eastern Europe. It is the group with the largest numbers of speakers, far out-numbering the Western and Southern Slavic groups... East Slavic group.

The basic vocabulary, principles of word-formation, and, to some extent, inflexions and literary style of Russian have been influenced by The Church Slavonic language (ru: церковнославя́нский язы́к, tserkovnoslavyánskiy yazík) is the liturgical language of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church and other... Church Slavonic, a developed and partly adopted form of the This article or section should be merged with List of South Slavic languages South Slavic languages is one of the three groups of Slavic languages (besides West and East Slavic). There are around 30 million speakers of these languages, mainly in the Balkans. The South Slavic languages are further subdivided... South Slavic Old Church Slavonic (also called Old Church Slavic or Old Bulgarian, incorrectly Old Slavic ) is the first literary Slavic language, developed from the Slavic dialect of Solun (Thessaloniki) by 9th century Byzantine missionaries, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. It was used by them for translation of the Bible and other... Old Church Slavonic language used by the Saint Basils Cathedral, a well-known Russian Orthodox church situated in Moscow The Russian Orthodox Church (Русская Православная церковь) is that body of Christians who are... Russian Orthodox Church. Many words in modern literary Russian are closer in form to the modern Bulgarian is an Indo-European language, a member of the Southern branch of the Slavic languages, along with Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, and Slovenian. Some linguists, including all Bulgarian and Greek ones, however, are of the opinion that Macedonian is only a regional norm of Bulgarian (see Macedonian language). Distribution Bulgarian... Bulgarian language than the Ukrainian or Belarusian that are heavily polonized. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to remain in the various dialects. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with slightly different meanings. For details, see Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The modern phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic, but underwent considerable modification in the early historical period, before being largely settled by about... Historical Sound Changes and Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... History of the Russian language.

Outside the Slavic languages, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have been greatly influenced by The Greek language (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – Hellenic) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. Ancient Greek in its various forms was the language both of classical Greek civilisation and of the origins of Christianity, and... Greek, Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. It is said... Latin, French (français, langue française) is one of the most important Romance languages, outnumbered in speakers only by Spanish and Portuguese. In 1999 French was the 11th most spoken language in the world being spoken by about 77 million people (called Francophones) as a mother tongue, and... French, German (called Deutsch in German; in German the term germanisch is equivalent to English Germanic), is a member of the western group of Germanic languages and is one of the worlds major languages. It is the language with the most native speakers in the European Union. It is spoken... German, and The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. It is the third most common first language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002. English has lingua franca status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence... English.

Geographic distribution

Russian is primarily spoken in The Russian Federation ( Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, transliteration: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya or Rossijskaja Federacija), or Russia (Russian: Росси́я, transliteration: Rossiya or Rossija), is a country that stretches... Russia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics of the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) .( Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик... USSR. Until 1917, it was the sole official language of the Russian Empire. During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian. Following the break-up of 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian. Though its role as the language of post-Soviet national intercourse throughout the region has continued, this status may decline in the future because the language is increasingly challenged by English.

In The Republic of Latvia ( Latvian: Latvijas Republika), or Latvia ( Latvian: Latvija), is a country in Northern Europe. Latvia has land borders with its two fellow Baltic states — Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south — and Russia and Belarus to the east. In the west Latvia shares... Latvia, notably, its official recognition and legality in the classroom have been a topic of considerable debate in a country with at least a 35% Russian-speaking minority.

The same is true for Estonia, where Russian remains the native language of at least a quarter of its population residing close to the Russian border.

The pressure from the EU committee might soon force these countries' governments to recognize the rights of the Russian speakers.

A much smaller Russian-speaking minority in Lithuania has largely been assimilated during the decade of independence and currently represent less than 1/10 of its total.

In the twentieth century it was widely taught in the schools of the members of the old Soviet Empire was a term used to critically describe the actions and nature of the Soviet Union. It gained popularity after US President Ronald Reagan famously denounced the USSR as an evil empire in a 1982 speech to the United Kingdom House of Commons. Motivation of the term Though it... Warsaw Pact and in other This article is about one-party states ruled by Communist Parties. For information regarding communism as a form of society, as an ideology advocating that form of society, or as a popular movement, see the main Communism article. In common speech in the Western World, a communist state is a... countries that used to be satellites of the USSR, espeially in The Republic of Poland, a democratic country with a population of 38,626,349 and area of 312,685 km², is located in Central Europe, between Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania... Poland, The Republic of Bulgaria is a republic in the southeast of Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the east, Greece and Turkey to the south, Serbia and Montenegro and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Romania to the north along the river Danube. National motto: Съ... Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro  -Serbia    - Kosovo and Metohia    - Vojvodina  - Montenegro Official language Serbian 1 Capital Belgrade Area  - Total  - % water 88,361 km² n/a Population  - Total ( 2002) census - without Kosovo  - Density 7.498.001 126.83/km²... Serbia, and the National motto: Truth prevails ( Czech: Pravda vítězí) Official language Czech Capital Praha ( Prague) President Václav Klaus Prime Minister Stanislav Gross Area  - Total  - % water Ranked 114th 78,866 km² 2% Population  - Total ( 2003)  - Density Ranked 76th 10.25 million... Czech Republic. However, younger generations are usually not fluent in it, because Russian is no longer mandatory in the school system.

Russian is also spoken in The State of Israel (Hebrew: מדינת ישראל, translit.: Medinat Yisrael; Arabic: دولة اسرائيل, translit.: Daulat Israil) is a country in the Middle East on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea... Israel by at least 750,000 ethnic The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination... Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union (1999 census). The Israeli Press is a general term having a number of related meanings stemming from the original definition of pressing as the physical action of applying force: Things relating to Metalworking: Machine press, a machine that shapes material by the application of pressure; Flypress, a machine that cuts material by pressing with... press and A website, Web site or WWW site (often shortened to just site) is a collection of webpages, that is, HTML/XHTML documents accessible via HTTP on the Internet; all publicly accessible websites in existence comprise the World Wide Web. The pages of a website will be accessed from a common... websites regularly publish material in Russian.

Sizeable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America (especially in large urban centers of the US and Canada such as New York, Los Angeles, Toronto, Miami, and Chicago). In the first two of them, Russian-speaking groups total over half a million: they issue their own newspapers, live in their self-sufficient neighborhoods (especially the first generation immigrants who started arriving in the early sixties). It's important to note, however, that only about a quarter of them are ethnic Russians. The overwhelming majority are Russian-speaking Jews, Ukrainians, Armenians, etc.

Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the twentieth century, each with its own flavour of language. Germany, Britain, Spain, France, Italy, Belgium, and Greece have significant Russian-speaking communities totaling, in the case of Germany, 2 million people.

Two thirds of them are actually Russian-speaking descendants of Germans, Greeks, Jews, Armenians, or Ukrainians who either repatriated after the USSR collapsed or are just looking for employment.

Earlier, the descendants of the Russian émigrés tended to lose the tongue of their ancestors by the third generation. Now, when the border is more open, Russian is likely to survive longer, especially when many of the emigrants visit their homelands at least once a year and have also access to Russian websites and TV channels.

Recent estimates of the total number of speakers of Russian:

Official status

Russian is the official language of The Russian Federation ( Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, transliteration: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya or Rossijskaja Federacija), or Russia (Russian: Росси́я, transliteration: Rossiya or Rossija), is a country that stretches... Russia, and an official language of Belarus ( Belarusian: Белару́сь, Russian: Белару́сь (formerly: Белору́ссия), Polish: Białoruś) is a landlocked nation of Eastern Europe with the capital Minsk. Belarus... Belarus, Kazakhstan ( Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, IPA /qɑzɑqˈstɑn/; Russian: Казахстан, Kazakhstán, IPA /kɐzəxˈstɐn/), also spelled Kazakstan, is a... Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан) is a country in Central Asia. It borders China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Its capital is Bishkek (formerly Frunze.) National motto: none Official languages Kyrgyz, Russian Capital Bishkek President Askar Akayev Prime Minister Nikolay Tanayev Area  - Total... Kyrgyzstan. It is one of the six official languages of the The United Nations, or UN, is an international organization made up of 191 states established in 1945. With the notable exception of the Holy See/ Vatican City (which is the sole permanent observer state), all countries recognized by the CIA as first-level sovereign entities, are members. Other entities recognized... United Nations.

Education in Russian is still a popular choice for many of the both native and RSL (Russian as a second language) speakers in Russia and many of the former Soviet republics.

97% of the public school students of Russia, 75% in Belarus, 41% in Kazakhstan, 24% in Ukraine (Україна, Ukrayina in Ukrainian; Украина in Russian) is a republic in eastern Europe which borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest and... Ukraine, 23% in Kyrgyzstan, 21% in This article refers to the Republic of Moldova. For information about the adjacent Romanian region, see Moldavia; for other uses see Moldova (disambiguation) The Republic of Moldova is a landlocked country in eastern Europe, located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the east. Its border with Romania follows... Moldova, 7% in Azerbaijan (disambiguation). Azerbaijan ( Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan) is a country in the Caucasus, in the crossroads of Europe and Southwest Asia, with an east coast on the Caspian Sea. It borders Russia on the north, Georgia and Armenia on the west, and Iran on the south. The Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic... Azerbaijan, 5% in Georgia ( Georgian: საქართველო Sakartvelo), known from 1991 to 1995 as the Republic of Georgia, is a country to the east of the Black Sea in the southern Caucasus. A former republic of the Soviet Union, it shares borders with Russia in... Georgia were educated in Russian, although the corresponding percentage of ethnic Russians was 80% in Russia, 10% in Belarus, 27% in Kazakhstan, 17% in Ukraine, 9% in Kyrgyzstan, 10% in Moldova, 1% in Azerbaijan, 1% in Georgia.

Dialects

Despite levelling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary, a large number of dialects exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of the Russian language into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern," with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern, Central and Southern, with Moscow lying in the Central region. Dialectology within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants.

The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language.

The northern dialects typically pronounce unstressed /o/ clearly (the phenomenon called okanye оканье); the southern palatalize the final /t/ and In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies the release of some stop consonants. To hear and feel the difference between the aspirated and the unaspirated sound, put your hand in front of your mouth and say top and then stop. The t in top is aspirated... aspirate the /g/ into /h/. It should be noted that some of these features are also present in modern Ukrainian, indicating a linguistic continuum or strong influence one way or the other.

Among the first to study Russian dialects was Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (Михаи́л Васи́льевич Ломоно́сов) (November 19 (November 8, Old Style), 1711 – April 15 (April 4, Old Style), 1765) was... Lomonosov in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth, Dahls portrait by Perov Vladimir Ivanovich Dal (also: Dahl, Владимир Иванович Даль) (November 10, 1801 – September 22, 1872) was the greatest Russian lexicographer. His father was a Danish physician named Yohan... Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the twentieth century. In modern times, the monumental Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language (Диалектологический атлас русского языка /dʲə.ʌ.'lʲe.ktə.lʌ.'gʲi.tʲʆə.skʲəj 'a.tləs 'ru.skə.və jə.zɨ.'ka/), was published in 3 folio volumes 1986-1989, after four decades of preparatory work.

The standard language is based on the Moscow dialect.

Derived languages

• Fenya or Fenka, a criminal Lingo is a programming language. Lingo is also an American TV game show. Lingo is a way of referring to the way a certain speech community speaks. This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. If an article... lingo of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary.
• Surzhyk (суржик) is a pidgin language spoken in parts of Ukraine. It is a mixture of Ukrainian substrate with Russian superstrate. The vocabulary usage of either of the languages varies with location, or sometimes even from person to person. The percentage of Russian words tends... Surzhyk is a Ukrainian-Russian pidgin spoken in some rural areas of Ukraine
• Trasianka or trasyanka (be: трасянка) is a Belarusian–Russian patois. In Belarusian the word itself literally means low quality hay, when indigent farmers mix (shake: трасуць, trasuts) fresh grass with the yesteryears dried hay. Trasianka... Trasianka is a Belarusian-Russian mix (sort of A Pidgin, or contact language, is the name given to any language created, usually spontaneously, out of a mixture of other languages as a means of communication between speakers of different tongues. Pidgins have rudimentary grammars and restricted vocabulary, serving as auxiliary contact languages. They are improvised rather than learned... pidgin) used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus ( Belarusian: Белару́сь, Russian: Белару́сь (formerly: Белору́ссия), Polish: Białoruś) is a landlocked nation of Eastern Europe with the capital Minsk. Belarus... Belarus.
• Russenorsk (or Russonorsk) was a pidgin language combining elements of Russian and Norwegian, created by traders and whalers from the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago and the Russian Kola peninsula. The presence of seamen, fishermen, and traders in close proximity with no common language necessitated the creation of some minimal form of... Russenorsk is an extinct A Pidgin, or contact language, is the name given to any language created, usually spontaneously, out of a mixture of other languages as a means of communication between speakers of different tongues. Pidgins have rudimentary grammars and restricted vocabulary, serving as auxiliary contact languages. They are improvised rather than learned... pidgin language with Russian vocabulary and Norwegian is a Germanic language spoken in Norway. Norwegian is closely related to, and generally mutually intelligible with Swedish and Danish. Together with these two languages, Norwegian belongs to the Northern, or Scandinavian group of the Germanic languages. Proficient speakers of any of the three languages can understand the others... Norwegian grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegians in Svalbard, a part of the Kingdom of Norway, including one municipality (Longyearbyen), lies in the Arctic Ocean north of mainland Europe. It consists of a group of islands ranging from 74 ° to 81° North, and 10° to 34° East; it forms the northernmost part of Norway... Svalbard and The Kola Peninsula in relation to Scandinavia, the White Sea, Barents Sea, Lake Onega, Lake Ladoga, and foreign countries. Kola Peninsula (Кольский полуостров, Kolskij poluostrov in Russian) a peninsula on the far north... Kola Peninsula.

Writing system

Alphabet

What is a letter?... from the first edition of Smotrytskys grammar Meletius Smotrytsky (Ukrainian: Мелетій Смотрицький; Belarusian: Мялецій Сматрыцкі... Meletius Smotrytsky presented the Cyrillic alphabet in this Events May 13 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason. July 30 - In Jamestown, Virginia, the first representative assembly in the Americas, the House of Burgesses, convenes for the first time. 16 November - foundation of William Parker School, Hastings by the... 1619 publication describing the "Slavonic" language.

Russian is written using a modern version of the The Cyrillic alphabet (or azbuka, from the old name of the first letters) is an alphabet used to write six natural Slavic languages (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian) and many other languages of the former Soviet Union, Asia and Eastern Europe. * archaic letters Origins The plan of the... Cyrillic alphabet, consisting of 33 letters.

The following table gives their majuscule forms, along with The three-letter acronym IPA can stand for any of the following: International Phonetic Alphabet. See also: Phonetics Isopropyl alcohol International Phonetic Association India Pale Ale International Police Association Independent Pilots Association Institute of Public Affairs (Australia) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages... IPA values for each letter's typical sound:

Old letters that have been abolished at one time or another but occur in this and related articles include ѣ /ě:/ or /e/, і /i/, and ѧ /ja/ or / ʲa/. The The letter (Ъ, ъ) of the Cyrillic alphabet is known as the hard sign (твёрдый знак ) in the modern Russian alphabet and as er golyam (ер голям, big yer) in the Bulgarian alphabet. The letter is... yers ъ and ь were originally pronounced as ultra-short or reduced /ŭ/, /ĭ/ (conventional transcription, not IPA).

Orthography

Russian spelling is reasonably phonetic in practice. It is in fact a balance among phonetics, morphology, etymology, and grammar, and, like that of most living languages, has its share of inconsistencies and controversial points.

The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990's has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted.

The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reformulated on the French and German models.

Sounds

The phonological system of Russian is inherited from This article or section should be merged with Proto-Slavic language Common Slavonic is the common language spoken by the Slavs, which eventually broke up into the ancestors of the modern Slavic languages. The Common Slavic language spoken before the 6th century is reconstructed, as there are no documents written... Common Slavonic, but underwent considerable modification in the early historical period, before being largely settled by about 1400.

The language possesses five vowels, which are given separate letters depending on whether or not they palatalize a preceding consonant. The consonants typically come in pairs, hard and soft ( Palatalization means pronouncing a sound nearer to the hard palate, making it more like a palatal consonant; this is towards the front of the mouth for a velar or uvular consonant, but towards the back of the mouth for a front (e.g. alveolar) consonant. The modification can be purely... palatalised).

The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate modulation in pitch (which is not a lexical differentiator). Stressed vowels are somewhat drawled, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to an unclear See Schwa (art) for the underground artist. In linguistics and phonology, schwa is the neutral, mid central unrounded vowel sound, exactly in the middle of the International Phonetic Alphabet vowel chart. In phonetic transcriptions, it is written as (rotated e). Schwa is the most common vowel sound in English, the... schwa. Consonant clusters tend to be simplified.

The spoken dialects show a very large number of variations.

Grammar

Russian has preserved an Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. By extension, it became a collective name for cultures and religions associated with these languages. Hypothetically, these cultures arose from the expansion of an ancient people, the Proto-Indo-Europeans... Indo-European A Synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-to-word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage classifications (such as inflectional, agglutinative, etc.) although there is a common tendency for agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic properties. Synthetic and isolating languages Synthetic languages... synthetic- This article is about inflection in linguistics. For a mathematical meaning, see Stationary point. Inflection or inflexion refers to a modification or marking of a word (or more precisely lexeme) so that it reflects grammatical (i.e. relational) information, such as grammatical gender, tense, person, etc. Declension and conjugation Those... inflexional structure, although considerable levelling has taken place.

Russian grammar encompasses

• a highly A Synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-to-word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage classifications (such as inflectional, agglutinative, etc.) although there is a common tendency for agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic properties. Synthetic and isolating languages Synthetic languages... synthetic morphology
• a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:
  • a polished This article addresses vernacular language; see also vernacular architecture. The vernacular is the native language of a country or locality. In previous centuries scholarly work in western Europe was typically written in Latin, so the works written in a native language (such as Italian or German) were said to be... vernacular foundation;
  • a The Church Slavonic language (ru: церковнославя́нский язы́к, tserkovnoslavyánskiy yazík) is the liturgical language of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church and other... Church Slavonic inheritance;
  • a Western Europe is distinguished from Central Europe and Eastern Europe by differences of history and culture rather than by geography. However, these boundaries of Europe are subject to considerable overlap and fluctuation, which makes differentiation difficult. Thus the concept of Western Europe is associated with liberal democracy; and its countries... Western European style.

The spoken language has been influenced by the literary, but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.

Vocabulary

Download high resolution version (848x1252, 551 KB)The page giving the letter П ( /p/ ) in an ABC book printed in Moscow in 1694. The words for the objects displayed all began with the letter п in the Russian of that time. The alphabet is Cyrillic, in an ornate form (п...

Download high resolution version (848x1252, 551 KB)The page giving the letter П ( /p/ ) in an ABC book printed in Moscow in 1694. The words for the objects displayed all began with the letter п in the Russian of that time. The alphabet is Cyrillic, in an ornate form (п...

This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter П.

See Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... History of Russian language for an account of the successive foreign influences on the Russian language.

The total number of words in Russian is difficult to reckon because of the ability to agglutinate and create manifold compounds, diminutives, etc. (see Russian grammar encompasses: a highly synthetic morphology a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements: a Church Slavonic inheritance; a Western European style; a polished vernacular foundation. The Russian language has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflexional structure, although considerable levelling has taken place... Word Formation under Russian grammar encompasses: a highly synthetic morphology a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements: a Church Slavonic inheritance; a Western European style; a polished vernacular foundation. The Russian language has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflexional structure, although considerable levelling has taken place... Russian grammar).

The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the last two centuries, and the total vocabulary of Pushkin may refer to: People Aleksandr Pushkin - a famous Russian poet Apollo Mussin-Pushkin - chemist and plant collector Aleksei Musin-Pushkin - statesman, historian, art collector Other Pushkin, a town in Russia Pushkin Square - square in Moscow Pushkin Museum - fine arts museum in Moscow This is a disambiguation page — a... Pushkin, are as follows:

Philologists have estimated that the language today may contain as many as 350,000 to 500,000 words.

(As a historical aside, Dahls portrait by Perov Vladimir Ivanovich Dal (also: Dahl, Владимир Иванович Даль) (November 10, 1801 – September 22, 1872) was the greatest Russian lexicographer. His father was a Danish physician named Yohan... Dahl was, in the second half of the nineteenth century, still insisting that the proper spelling of the adjective русский, which was at that time applied uniformly to all the Orthodox Eastern Slavic subjects of the Empire, as well as to its one official language, be spelled руский with one s, in accordance with ancient tradition and what he termed the "spirit of the language". He was contradicted by the philologist Grot, who distinctly heard the s lengthened or doubled.)

The language of abuse and invective

Apparently, the ability to curse effectively has always been recognized as a form of art not only in certain quarters of society, but even by the more conservative-minded literati. For example, as far back as in the nineteenth-century naval yarns of Konstantin Mikhailovich Staniukovich (Константин Михайлович Станюкович) (1844-1903) was a Russian writer, remembered today mostly for his stories of the Russian Imperial Navy... Staniukovich, "artistic invective" (артистическая ругань /ə.rtʲi.'sʲtʲi.tʲʆə.skə.jə 'ru.gənʲ/) keeps coming out of the sailors' mouths, though it is never spelled out. The ability to agglutinate has produced the so-called "three-decker curse" (трёхэтажный мат /'trʲox.ɛ.'ta.ʒnəj 'mat/).

It is interesting that the modern obscenities appear to have taken on their meaning in the eighteenth century, as euphemisms for words since lost. For example, the word блядь /blʲatʲ/ ("whore"), is today considered extraordinarily offensive. It anciently meant "error, sin", as a concept in the high style, occurs in scripture in that sense, and may perhaps be heard during the liturgy.

Proverbs and sayings

Russian language is replete with many hundreds of proverbs (пословица /pʌ.'slo.vʲi.ʦə/) and sayings (поговоркa /pə.gʌ.'vo.rkə/). These were already tabulated by the seventeenth century, and collected and studied in the nineteenth and twentieth, with the folk-tales being an especially fertile source.

History and examples

See also: Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The Russian language adopted the Cyrillic alphabet, almost certainly during the tenth century and at about the same time as the introduction of Eastern Christianity into... Reforms of Russian orthography

The history of Russian language may be divided into the following periods.

• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... Origins
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... The Kievan period (9th-11th centuries)
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... Feudal breakup (12th-14th centuries)
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... The Moscovite period (15th-17th centuries)
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... Empire (18th-19th centuries)
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... Soviet period and beyond (20th century)

See also:

• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... Examples of literary language (12-20th century)

Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European The Russian Federation ( Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, transliteration: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya or Rossijskaja Federacija), or Russia (Russian: Росси́я, transliteration: Rossiya or Rossija), is a country that stretches... Russia, Ukraine (Україна, Ukrayina in Ukrainian; Украина in Russian) is a republic in eastern Europe which borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest and... Ukraine, and Belarus ( Belarusian: Белару́сь, Russian: Белару́сь (formerly: Белору́ссия), Polish: Białoruś) is a landlocked nation of Eastern Europe with the capital Minsk. Belarus... Belarus was the Eastern branch of the The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. They speak Slavic languages and reside chiefly in the east of that continent, but are also found in Asia. Ethno-cultural subdivisions One can customarily divide the Slavs into the following subgroups: East Slavs: Russians... Slavs, speaking a closely related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Ру́сь, Kievskaya Rus in Russian; Київська Русь, Kyivs’ka Rus’ in Ukrainian) was the early, mostly East Slavic¹ state dominated by... Kievan Rus, from which both modern Russia and Ukraine trace their origins, was soon followed by the adoption of For other uses of the term Christian, see Christian (disambiguation). Christianity is an Abrahamic religion based on the life, teachings, death by crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth as described in the New Testament. Although Christians are monotheistic, the one God is thought, by most Christians, to exist in... Christianity in 988-9 and the establishment of Old Church Slavonic (also called Old Church Slavic or Old Bulgarian, incorrectly Old Slavic ) is the first literary Slavic language, developed from the Slavic dialect of Solun (Thessaloniki) by 9th century Byzantine missionaries, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. It was used by them for translation of the Bible and other... Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and literary language. Borrowings and calques from Byzantine The word Greek has a number of meanings relating to Greece, including: Architecture of Ancient Greece Art in Ancient Greece Greek alphabet Greek colonies Cuisine of Greece Ethnic Greek Greco-Turkish relations Greece Hellenes History of Greece History of Mycenaean Greece History of Ancient Greece History of Hellenistic Greece History... Greek began to enter the vernacular at this time, and simultaneously the literary language began to be modified in its turn to become more nearly Eastern Slavic.

Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100, and the Mongol conquest of the thirteenth century. After the disestablishment of the "Tartar yoke" in the late fourteenth century, both the political centre and the predominant dialect in European Russia came to be based in Saint Basils Cathedral Moscow  listen? ( Russian/Cyrillic: Москва́, pronunciation: Moskva), capital of Russia, located on the river Moskva, and encompassing 1097.12 km2. Its coordinates are 55°45′ N 37°37′ E. The citys population... Moscow. There is some consensus that Russian and Ukrainian can be considered distinct languages from this period at the latest. The official language remained a kind of Church Slavonic until the close of the seventeenth century, but, despite attempts at standardization, as by What is a letter?... from the first edition of Smotrytskys grammar Meletius Smotrytsky (Ukrainian: Мелетій Смотрицький; Belarusian: Мялецій Сматрыцкі... Meletius Smotrytsky c. 1620, its purity was by then strongly compromised by an incipient secular literature.

The political reforms of Peter I Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia Peter I (Pyotr Alekseyvich) (9 June 1672–8 February 1725 [30 May 1672–28 January 1725 O.S.1]) ruled Russia from 7 May (27 April O.S.) 1682 until his death. Known as Peter the Great (, Pyotr Velikiy), he... Peter the Great were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French (français, langue française) is one of the most important Romance languages, outnumbered in speakers only by Spanish and Portuguese. In 1999 French was the 11th most spoken language in the world being spoken by about 77 million people (called Francophones) as a mother tongue, and... French, less often The word German can mean: From or related to Germany or its predecessor states - see also the German language Germanic tribes Holy Roman Empire (843-1806) German Confederation (1815-1866) North German Confederation (1867 - 1871) German Empire (1871-1918) Weimar Republic (1919-1933) Nazi Germany (1933-1945) West Germany (1949... German, on an everyday basis. The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Aleksandr Pushkin was a Russian poet and a founder of modern Russian literature Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin (Russian: Алекса́ндр Серге́евич Пу́шкин) (June 6 (May 26, O.S... Alexander Pushkin in the first third of the nineteenth century.

Reading of excerpt of Pushkin's "Winter Evening" (Зимний вечер), 1825. ^{To play the audio file do not click on the -image. Look for a Listen-link near this icon. Click on the back button of your browser to go back to the article and try again. File links The following pages link to this file: Alfred Nobel Adalbert of Prague...  listen?}

The political upheavals of the early twentieth century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a world-wide if occasionally grudging prestige, especially during the middle third of the twentieth century.

Since the collapse of 1990-91, fashion for ways and things Western, economic uncertainties and difficulties within the educational system have made for inevitable rapid change in the language. Russian today is a tongue in great flux.

References

The following serve as references for both this article and the related articles listed below that describe the Russian language:

In English:

• B. Comrie, G. Stone, M. Polinsky, The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century, 2nd. ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1996
• W.K. Matthews, Russian Historical Grammar, London, University of London, Athlone Press, 1960
• T.R. Carleton, Introduction to the Phonological History of the Slavic Languages, Columbus, Ohio : Slavica Publishers, 1991
• A. Stender-Petersen, Anthology of old Russian literature, New York, Columbia University Press, 1954

In Russian:

• Иванов В.В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. "Просвещение", М., 1990.
• Цыганенко Г. П. Этимологический словарь русского языка. Киев, 1970.
• Т. Н. Михельсон, Рассказы русских летописей XV–XVII веков. М., 1978
• Н.М. Шанский, В.В. Иванов, Т.В. Шанская. Краткий этимологический словарь русского языка. М. 1961.
• А. Шицгал, Русский гражданский шрифт, "Исскуство", Москва, 1958, 2-e изд. 1983.
• Л. П. Жуковская, отв. ред. Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому.

М., «Наука», 1987.

Many further references are listed in the books above.

Related articles

Language description

• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The modern Russian alphabet is a variant of the Cyrillic alphabet. It was introduced into Kievan Rus at the time of its conversion to Christianity (988... Russian alphabet
• Russian grammar encompasses: a highly synthetic morphology a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements: a Church Slavonic inheritance; a Western European style; a polished vernacular foundation. The Russian language has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflexional structure, although considerable levelling has taken place... Russian grammar
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. Russian orthography (правописание ) is formally considered to encompass spelling (орфогр... Russian orthography
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The modern phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic, but underwent considerable modification in the early historical period, before being largely settled by about... Russian phonetics
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The history proper of the Russian language dates from just before the turn of the second millennium. NOTE. In the following sections, all examples of vocabulary... History of Russian language

Related languages

• This article or section should be merged with List of East Slavic languages The East Slavic languages constitute one of three regional subgroups of Slavic languages, currently spoken in Eastern Europe. It is the group with the largest numbers of speakers, far out-numbering the Western and Southern Slavic groups... East Slavic languages
• The Church Slavonic language (ru: церковнославя́нский язы́к, tserkovnoslavyánskiy yazík) is the liturgical language of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church and other... Church Slavonic language
• Great Russian language (Великорусский язык, Velikorusskiy yazyk) is a name given in the 19th century to the Russian language as opposed to the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. By the 19th-century standards, most scholars didn... Great Russian language
• Old Church Slavonic (also called Old Church Slavic or Old Bulgarian, incorrectly Old Slavic ) is the first literary Slavic language, developed from the Slavic dialect of Solun (Thessaloniki) by 9th century Byzantine missionaries, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. It was used by them for translation of the Bible and other... Old Church Slavonic language
• The name Old Russian language has been applied to different things. Old East Slavic language was the language of Kievan Rus, spoken from the 9th to 14th centuries. It was the ancestor of the East Slavic languages Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian. For the language of Muscovite Russia in the... Old Russian language

Other

• Strictly speaking, this is the list of English words possibly borrowed from Russian. Not all of them are of truly Russian or Slavic origin. Some of them co-exist in other Slavic languages and it is difficult to decide whether they entered English from Russian or, say, from Polish, most... List of English words of Russian origin
• Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia or its emigrés, and to the Russian-language literature of several independent nations once a part of what was historically Russia or the Soviet Union. With the break up of the USSR different countries and cultures may lay claim to various... Russian literature
• Russian humour gains much of its wit from the great flexibility and richness of the Russian language, allowing for plays on words and unexpected associations. Like with any other nation, its vast scope ranges from lewd jokes and silly wordplay to political satire. Political satire For most of Russian history... Russian humour
• Russian proverbs give an insight an many aspects of Russian history, culture, national character. Russian language is replete with many hundreds of proverbs (пословица/poslovitsa/) and sayings (поговоркa/pogovorka/). These were already tabulated... Russian proverbs
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. The Russian language adopted the Cyrillic alphabet, almost certainly during the tenth century and at about the same time as the introduction of Eastern Christianity into... Reforms of Russian orthography
• There exist many possible systems for transliterating the Cyrillic alphabet of the Russian language to English or the Latin alphabet. Such transliteration is necessary for writing Russian names and other words in English text. It is also essential for the input of Russian text into computer by users who either... Transliteration of Russian into English
• Volapuk encoding (Russian: кодировка воляпюк (or волапюк, kodirovka volapyuk)) is a slang term for rendering the letters of Cyrillic alphabet by the Latin ones. It has been in use since... Volapuk encoding
• Non-native speakers of the English language tend to carry the intonation, accent or pronunciation from their mother tongue into their English speech. (The language spoken by a person before their second language has reached the stage of native speaker or near-native speaker competence is known as an interlanguage... Non-native pronunciations of English
• This is a list of commonly confused homonyms including both homophones—words which have the same pronunciation—and homographs—words which are spelled the same. English Some words are not fully homophonous, and other are homophones only in certain dialects. accept: tolerate except: everything but add: put... List of commonly confused homonyms in Russian
• Here is a list of common phrases in different languages. It is possible for tourists in a country whose language they do not understand to get along with a surprisingly short list of phrases, combined with pointing, miming, and writing down numbers on paper. You are invited to add more... Common phrases in different languages
• Note: This page contains phonetic information presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) using Unicode. See IPA in Unicode if you have display problems. Runglish is the variety of English spoken by native speakers of Russian in many countries (especially in Russia and the CIS). What makes it distinctive is... Runglish

Wiktionary information

• For more information: Russian

External links

• All free Russian dictionaries (http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=81)
• Free downloadable vocabularies of the Russian language (http://www.speakrus.ru/dict/)
• Cyrillic (Russian): instructions for Windows and Internet - Russian fonts, transliterated Russian keyboard, on-screen, virtual Russian keyboard, Unicode and Cyrillic, Russian programs and file names, etc. (http://RusWin.net)

• MasterRussian.com - Free lessons, vocabulary words and phrases, tips, hand-picked links. (http://www.masterrussian.com)
• Free Russian translations. (http://www.ifstudio-translations.com/)
• Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary of Russian language (http://tinyurl.com/5lhlp)
• Russian Language Forum. A large community interested in learning Russian. (http://www.masterrussian.net/mforum)
• "GRAMOTA". An educational/reference site on the Russian language, supported by the Russian government. (In Russian) (http://www.gramota.ru)
• "Moshkov's library". A large collection of classical and modern Russian e-texts. (In Russian) (http://www.lib.ru)
• Russian alphabet with sound (languagehelpers.com) (http://www.languagehelpers.com/Russian/TheRussianAlphabet.html)
• Reference Grammar (http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/language/)
• Wikibooks Russian (http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Russian:Contents)
• Russian - English Dictionary (http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Russian-english/)
• Generator for Russian typographical filler text (http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_russian)
• G. Weber, "Top Languages" (http://www.andaman.org/book/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm)
• SIL Ethnologue Report for Russian (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rus)
• Russian for Everybody (Self-Learning) (http://www.linguarus.com)
• Russian course search (http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/russian.php)
• ODP Russian Language category (http://dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Indo-European/Slavic/Russian/)
• Russian Translation USA (http://www.language-usa.com/)
• Runglish (http://runglish1.narod.ru)
• Russian Language Groups in America (http://www.orlandorussians.com/)