Russian Turkestan (Russian: Ру́сский Туркеста́н), also known as Turkestansky Krai (Туркеста́нский край), was a subdivision (Krai or Governor-Generalship) of Imperial Russia, comprising the oasis region to the South of the Kazakh steppes, but not the Protectorates of Bukhara and Khiva. Krai (Russian: край; British English transliteration: kray), is a term used to refer to several of Russias 89 administrative regions (federal subjects). ... Guberniya (also gubernia, guberniia, and gubernya) (Russian: губе́рния) was a major administrative subdivision of the Imperial Russia, usually translated as province or Governorate General. ... Imperial Russia is the term used to cover the period of Russian history from the expansion of Russia under Peter the Great, through the expansion of the Russian Empire from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, to the deposal of Nicholas II of Russia, the last tsar, at the start... Kazakhstan (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, IPA /qÉ‘zÉ‘qˈstÉ‘n/; Russian: Казахстан, Kazakhstán, IPA /kɐzÉ™xˈstɐn/), also spelled Kazakstan, is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of Asia. ... Bukhara (بُخارا in Persian, Buxoro or Бухоро in Uzbek (the Cyrillic alphabet was officially phased out for Uzbek after independence); Бухара in Russian; also Boxara in Tatar) is one of the major cities of Uzbekistan, and capital of the Bukhara region (Bukhoro Wiloyati). ... Khiva (alternative names include Khorasam, Khoresm, Khwarezm, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Chiwa and Chorezm) is a city in present day Uzbekistan, in the Khorezm Province. ...

History

The Defence of the Samarkand Citadel in 1868

Although Russia had been pushing south into the Steppes from Orenburg since the early 18th century, the beginning of the conquest of Turkestan is normally dated to 1865, when the city of Tashkent fell to a force under General Cherniaev. Cherniaev had exceeded his orders (he only had 3,000 men under his command at the time) but St. Petersburg recognised the annexation in any case. This was swiftly followed by the conquest of Khodjend, Djizak and Ura-Tyube, culminating in the annexation of Samarkand and the surrounding region on the River Zeravshan from the Emirate of Bukhara in 1868. In 1867 Turkestan was made a separate Governor-Generalship, under its first Governor-General, Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman. It consisted initially of three Oblasts (Provinces): Syr-Darya, Semirechye and the Zeravshan Okrug (Military Region). To these were added in 1873 the Amu-Darya Otdel, annexed from the Khanate of Khiva, and in 1876 the Ferghana Oblast, formed from the remaining rump of the Kokand Khanate after an uprising in 1875. In 1894 the Transcaspian Region, which was conquered in 1881-1885 by Generals Skobelev and Annenkov, was added to the Governor-Generalship. The administration of the region had an almost purely military character throughout. Von Kaufman died in 1882, and a committee under Confidential Counsellor N.K. Girs toured the Krai and drew up proposals for reform, which were implemented after 1886. In 1888 the new Transcaspian Railway, begun at Uzun-Ada on the shores of the Caspian in 1877, reached Samarkand. Nevertheless Turkestan remained an isolated colonial outpost, with an administration that preserved many distinctive features from the previous Islamic regimes, including Qadis' courts and a 'native' administration that devolved much power to local 'Aksakals' (Elders or Headmen). It was quite unlike European Russia. In 1908 Count K.K. Pahlen led another reforming Commission to Turkestan which produced a monumental report detailing problems with administrative corruption and inefficiency in 1909-1910. In 1897 the Railway reached Tashkent, and finally in 1906 a direct rail link with European Russia was opened across the steppe from Orenburg to Tashkent. This led to much larger numbers of Slavic settlers flowing into Turkestan than had hitherto been the case, and their settlement was overseen by a specially created Migration Department in St. Petersburg (Переселенческое Управление). This caused considerable discontent amongst the local population, Kirghiz, Kazakhs and Sarts, as these settlers took scarce land and water resources away from them. In 1916 discontent boiled over in the Central Asian Revolt, sparked by a decree conscripting the natives into Labour battalions (they had previously been exempt from military service). Thousands of settlers were killed, and this was matched by Russian reprisals, particularly against the nomadic population. Order had not really been restored by the time the February Revolution took place in 1917. This would usher in a still bloodier chapter in Turkestan's history, as the Bolsheviks of the Tashkent Soviet (made up entirely of Russian soldiers and railway workers, with no Muslim members) launched an attack on the autonomous Jadid government in Kokand early in 1918, which left 14,000 dead. Resistance to the Bolsheviks by the local population (dismissed as 'Basmachi' or 'Banditry' by Soviet Historians) continued well into the 1920s. Orenburg (Оренбу́рг) is a city on the Ural River and the administrative center of Orenburg Oblast in the Volga Federal District of Russia. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... 1865 is a common year starting on Sunday. ... Tashkent Tashkent (Toshkent or Тошкент in Uzbek, Ташке́нт in Russian; its name is Turkoman language for Stone City It is the current capital of Uzbekistan, has in the past been called Chach, Shash and Binkent. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and Petrograd (Петрогра́д, 1914–1924), is a city located in Northwestern Russia on the delta of the river Neva at the east end of the Gulf of Finland... Khujand (also transliterated as Khudjand, Khudzhand, and Khodjend), formerly Leninabad is a city on the Syr-Darya at the mouth of the Ferghana Valley, and also gives its name to the northernmost region of the Republic of Tajikistan. ... Jizzakh (also spelt Jizzax, Djizak and Джизак) is a city in central Uzbekistan, northwest of Samarkand. ... Ura-Tyube (also transliterated Ura-tiube or Ura-tube) is a city in Tajikistan. ... Samarkand (Samarqand or Самарқанд in Uzbek, in Persian سمرقند) (population 400,000) is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan, capital of the Samarkand region (Samarqand Wiloyati). ... The Zeravshan or Zarafshan river, whilst smaller and less well-known than the two great rivers of Central Asia, the Oxus or Amu-Darya and the Jaxartes or Syr-Darya, is if anything more valuable as a source of irrigation in the region. ... Generally speaking, an emirate (Arabic imarah, plural imarat) is a territory that is administered by an emir, although in Arabic the term can be generalized to mean any province of a country that is administered by a member of the ruling class. ... Bukhara (بُخارا in Persian, Buxoro or Бухоро in Uzbek (the Cyrillic alphabet was officially phased out for Uzbek after independence); Бухара in Russian; also Boxara in Tatar) is one of the major cities of Uzbekistan, and capital of the Bukhara region (Bukhoro Wiloyati). ... 1868 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1867 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Türkistan (also spelled Turkistan or Turkestan) is a region in Central Asia, largely inhabited by Turkic people. ... Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman, first Governor-General of Russian Turkestan Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman (Константин Петрович фон-Кауфман in Russian) Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman (1818 - 1882) was the first Governor-General of Russian Turkestan. ... An oblast (Russian, Ukrainian: о́бласть) is a name for the subnational entity of Bulgaria, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and the former Soviet Union. ... Syr Darya (Persian سیردریا, also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a river in Central Asia, sometimes known as the Jaxartes from its Ancient Greek name ὁ Ιαξάρτης. ... Semiryechye (Семиречье, also written Semirechie, Semireche, Semirechiye, Semirechye) is a historical name of a part of Russian Turkestan, which corresponds to the South-Eastern part of modern Kazakhstan, known as Zhetysu (Jetysu, Jity-su, Жетысу, Джетысу). ... Okrug is a term to denote administrative subdivision in some Slavic states. ... 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Amu Darya (in Persian آمودریا; Darya means sea in Persian) rises in the Pamirs and flows mainly north-west through the Hindu Kush, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. ... Khiva (alternative names include Khorasam, Khoresm, Khwarezm, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Chiwa and Chorezm) is a city in present day Uzbekistan, in the Khorezm Province. ... 1876 is a leap year starting on Saturday. ... Fergana is a city in the Fergana Valley, capital of the Fargona Viloyati of Uzbekistan. ... An oblast (Russian, Ukrainian: о́бласть) is a subnational entity of Bulgaria, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and the now-defunct Soviet Union, approximately equivalent to a province. ... Kokand (or Khokand or Kokhand or Quqon or Коканд) is a city 1994 pop 145,000)in Fergana Province in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley. ... Transcaspia is an area of steppes and deserts (like Kara Kum) in Central Asia, between the Caspian Sea in the west, the Aral Sea in the north, the Amu Darya river in the north-east, and the Alborz and Hindu Kush mountains in the south. ... 1881 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1885 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (1843-1882) was a Russian general famous for his conquest of Central Asia and heroism during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. ... General M.A. Annenkov (1835-1899) was an important figure in the history of the Russian conquest of Turkestan in the 19th Century. ... Krai (Russian: край; British English transliteration: kray), is a term used to refer to several of Russias 89 administrative regions (federal subjects). ... 1886 is a common year starting on Friday (click on link to calendar) Events January 18 - Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England. ... 1888 is a leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). ... Caspian Sea viewed from orbit The Caspian Sea or Mazandaran Sea is a landlocked sea between Asia and Europe (European Russia). ... 1877 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... In general, the word colonial means of or relating to a colony. In United States history, the term Colonial is used to refer to the period before US independence. ... In the Islamic world, Qadi Arabic قاضى is a judge. In countries where Sharia, the traditional law interpreted from the Quran or the Hadith, is the law, qadi refers to a judge according to the Sharia. ... Aksakal in Turki literally means white bearded men that refers to the old and wise of the community. ... 1909 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1910 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1897 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Tashkent Tashkent (Toshkent or Тошкент in Uzbek, Ташке́нт in Russian; its name is Turkoman language for Stone City It is the current capital of Uzbekistan, has in the past been called Chach, Shash and Binkent. ... 1906 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... The steppe of Western Kazakhstan in early spring In physical geography, steppe (from Slavic step) is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes); it is similar to a prairie, although a prairie is generally reckoned as being dominated by tall grasses, while short grasses are said... Orenburg (Оренбу́рг) is a city on the Ural River and the administrative center of Orenburg Oblast in the Volga Federal District of Russia. ... Tashkent Tashkent (Toshkent or Тошкент in Uzbek, Ташке́нт in Russian; its name is Turkoman language for Stone City It is the current capital of Uzbekistan, has in the past been called Chach, Shash and Binkent. ... The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. ... Migration occurs when living things move from one biome to another. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and Petrograd (Петрогра́д, 1914–1924), is a city located in Northwestern Russia on the delta of the river Neva at the east end of the Gulf of Finland... Kirghiz (also Kyrgyz) are a Turkic ethnic group found primarily in Kyrgyzstan. ... A Kazakh and his camel The Kazakhs (Qazaq, Quazaq), (in Kazakh: Казак; in Russian: Казах; English term is the transliteration from Russian) are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia famous in the past for the fierce love of freedom, skillful horse riding, hunting with semi-domesticated... Sarts was a name for various sedentary Turkic tribes of Turkistan that settled by Syr Darya, known as Ak-sart in old times. ... 1916 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January-February January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. ... ... The February Revolution can also refer to the overthrow of the French Monarchy in February, 1848. ... 1917 - Wikipedia /**/ @import /w/skins-1. ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... Tashkent Tashkent (Toshkent or Тошкент in Uzbek, Ташке́нт in Russian; its name is Turkoman language for Stone City It is the current capital of Uzbekistan, has in the past been called Chach, Shash and Binkent. ... 1918 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Bolshevik Party Meeting. ... The Basmachi Revolt, or Basmachestvo as it is called in the Russian language, was an uprising against Soviet rule in Central Asia. ...

After the Russian Revolution, a Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union was created, which in 1924 was split into the Kazakh SSR (Kazakhstan), Turkmen SSR (Turkmenistan) and Uzbek SSR (Uzbekistan). The Tajik SSR (Tajikistan) was formed out of part of the Uzbek SSR in 1928, and a few years later the Kirghiz SSR (Kyrgyzstan) was separated from Kazakhstan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, these republics gained their independence. The phrase Russian Revolution can refer to three specific events in the history of Imperial Russia. ... Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (April 30, 1918 – October 27, 1924) was created from the Turkestan Krai of Imperial Russia. ... 1924 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... State motto: Барлық елдердің пролетарлары, бірігіңдер! Official language None. ... State motto: Әхли юртларың пролетарлары, бирлешиң! Official language None. ... State motto: Бутун дунё пролетарлари, бирлашингиз! Official language None. ... State motto: Пролетарҳои ҳамаи мамлакатҳо, як шавед! Official language None. ... State motto: Бутун дунё пролетарлари, бирлашингиз! Official language None. ... State motto: Бардык өлкөлордүн пролетарлары, бириккиле! Official language None. ... The rise of Gorbachev Although reform stalled between 1964–1982, the generational shift gave new momentum for reform. ...

References

• Eugene Schuyler "Turkistan" (London) 1876 2 Vols.
• G.N. Curzon "Russia in Central Asia" (London) 1889
• Ген. М.А. Терентьев "История Завоевания Средней Азии" (С.Пб.) 1903 3 Vols.
• В.В. Бартольд "История Культурной Жизни Туркестана" (Москва) 1927
• Count K.K. Pahlen "Mission to Turkestan" (Oxford) 1964
• Seymour Becker "Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia, Bukhara and Khiva 1865-1924" (Cambridge, Mass.) 1968
• Adeeb Khalid "The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform. Jadidism in Central Asia" (Berkeley) 1997
• T.K. Beisembiev "The Life of Alimqul" (London) 2003
• Daniel Brower "Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire" (London) 2003