NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Sandinista National Liberation Front

The Sandinista National Liberation Front (Spanish: Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a Nicaraguan political party founded on the broad leftist principles of the popular front. Their organization is generally referred to by the initials FSLN and its members are called, in both English and Spanish, Sandinistas. This term comes from what the Sandinistas termed the anti-imperialist struggle of Augusto César Sandino during the 1930s. Image File history File links FSLN.png Frente Sandinista de LiberaciÃ³n Nacional (Sandinist Front of National Liberation) flag. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... This article is about the capital city of Nicaragua. ... Socialism is a broad array of ideologies and political movements with the goal of a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to control by the community for the purposes of increasing social and economic equality and cooperation. ... The official symbol of Socialist International. ... This article is about the English rock band. ... Sandinista! is the fourth album by the punk rock band The Clash. ... A political party is a political organization that seeks to attain political power within a government, usually by participating in electoral campaigns. ... In politics, left-wing, political left, leftism, or simply the left, are terms which refer (with no particular precision) to the segment of the political spectrum typically associated with any of several strains of socialism, social democracy, or liberalism (especially in the American sense of the word), or with opposition... A popular front is a broad coalition of different political groupings, often made up of leftists and centrists who are united by opposition to another group (most often fascist or far-right groups). ... Anti-imperialism is a current within the political left advocating the collapse of imperialism. ... Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino Augusto NicolÃ¡s CalderÃ³n Sandino (May 18, 1895 â€“ February 21, 1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military presence in Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. ...

It led a broadly based revolution that in 1979 overthrew the Somoza political dynasty.^[1]^[2] Following their seizure of power, the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua for roughly 11 years from 1979 to 1990. First they ruled as part of a Junta of National Reconstruction. Following the resignation of centrist members of this Junta, the FSLN effectively took exclusive power in March 1981. In 1984 there were democratic elections in which they won the majority of the votes.^[3] They established a new national constitution. Today the FSLN remains one of Nicaragua's two leading parties. The FSLN often polls in opposition to the Constitutional Liberal Party, or PLC, which represents a roughly similar portion of the Nicaraguan population. Although the FSLN was voted out of power in 1990, its revolution affected many facets of Nicaraguan society and its legacy has left a lasting impression in the country. In the Nicaraguan general election, 2006 former President Daniel Ortega was re-elected President of Nicaragua and the voters brought in the country's second Sandinista government. Ortega was elected President with 38.7% of the vote compared to 29% for his leading rival Eduardo Montealegre of the Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance. Somoza was the name of an influential political dynasty in Nicaragua. ... The Junta of National Reconstruction ruled Nicaragua between 1979 and 1984. ... This article is part of or related to the Liberalism series Categories: Politics stubs | Liberal related stubs | Nicaraguan political parties | Liberal parties ... Nicaragua will hold a general election on 5 November 2006. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... This article is about the President of Nicaragua, for the 2006 presidential election results see: Nicaraguan general election, 2006 History of Nicaragua Presidentes de Nicaragua Categories: | ... Eduardo Montealegre (born in Managua, May 9, 1955) is a Nicaraguan politician. ... The ALN flag The Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance (Spanish: Alianza Liberal NicaragÃ¼ense â€“ ALN) was started in 2005 by Eduardo Montealegre and other members of the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista â€“ PLC) who opposed former President of the country Arnoldo AlemÃ¡ns continued control of the PLC even after...

History 1961–1970

The Sandinistas took their name from Augusto César Sandino (1895–1934), the charismatic and historical leader of the country's nationalist rebellion against the U.S. occupation of Nicaragua during the early 20th century, c. 1922 - 1934. Sandino was assassinated in 1934 by the National Guard (Guardia Nacional), a police force trained and equipped by the United States military which was established to permit Anastasio Somoza García to consolidate his control of the country. Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino Augusto NicolÃ¡s CalderÃ³n Sandino (May 18, 1895 â€“ February 21, 1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military presence in Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. ... Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino Augusto NicolÃ¡s CalderÃ³n Sandino (May 18, 1895 â€“ February 21, 1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military presence in Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. ... This is an incomplete list of persons that were assassinated for political and other reasons, and who have individual entries. ... In Nicaragua, the National Guard (Spanish: , otherwise known as ) was a militia created during the occupation of that country by the United States. ... Anastasio Somoza GarcÃa Anastasio Somoza GarcÃa (February 1, 1896 â€“ September 29, 1956) was officially the thirty-fourth and thirty-ninth President of Nicaragua, but ruled effectively as dictator from 1936 until his assassination. ...

The Somoza family ruled the country from 1936 until they were overthrown by the Sandinistas in 1979.

The Sandinistas were initially organized as a group of student activists at the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) in Managua.^[4] Outraged by the martial excesses and economic and social injustices of the ruling government, their aim was to overthrow the Somoza regime. The National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (Spanish: Universidad Nacional AutÃ³noma de Nicaragua, UNAN) is the principal state-funded public university of Nicaragua. ... Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ...

The FSLN was founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge Martínez and others as The National Liberation Front (FLN). The FSLN official website^[5] names the following as founders: Santos Lopez (former Sandino fighter), Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge Martínez, German Pomares Ordonez, Jorge Navarro, Julio Buitrago, Faustino Ruiz, Rigoberto Cruz and Jose Benito Escobar Perez. Only Tomás Borge Martínez lived long enough to see the Sandinista victory in 1979. The term "Sandinista", was added two years later, establishing continuity with Sandino's movement, and using his legacy in order to develop the newer movement's ideology and strategy.^[6] Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (Born: August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a minister of interior of Nicaragua under the pro-Communist rule of Daniel Ortega. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (Born: August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a minister of interior of Nicaragua under the pro-Communist rule of Daniel Ortega. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (Born: August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a minister of interior of Nicaragua under the pro-Communist rule of Daniel Ortega. ...

History 1970 - 1979

This article is about the President of Nicaragua, for the 2006 presidential election results see: Nicaraguan general election, 2006 History of Nicaragua Presidentes de Nicaragua Categories: | ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... The National Assembly (Spanish: Asamblea Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Nicaragua. ... Political parties in Nicaragua lists political parties in Nicaragua. ... Elections in Nicaragua gives information on elections and election results in Nicaragua. ... Nicaragua will hold a general election on 5 November 2006. ... Nicaragua is a unitary republic. ... This is a list of cities or municipalities in Nicaragua: Cities over 20,000 inhabitants in Nicaragua (1995 census) Acoyapa Ahuaya Alamikamba Altagracia BakÃ¡ Barra de RÃo Maiz BÃ©len Bilwascarma Bluefields Bocay Bumbona Cabo Gracias a Dios Cabril Cama CÃ¡rdenas Chinandega Chichigalpa Ciudad DarÃo Cokabilla Condega... The 1990 election victory of President Violeta Chamorro placed Nicaragua in the ranks of Latin American democracies. ... Information on politics by country is available for every country, including both de jure and de facto independent states, inhabited dependent territories, as well as areas of special sovereignty. ...

The rise of the FSLN

By the early 1970s, the FSLN had gained enough support from peasants,^[7] and student groups to launch limited military initiatives. On December 23, 1972, a powerful earthquake leveled the capital city, Managua. The earthquake killed 10,000 of the city's 400,000 residents and left another 250,000 homeless. About 80 percent of Managua's commercial buildings were destroyed.^[8] Anastasio Somoza Debayle's National Guard embezzled much of the international aid that flowed into the country to assist in reconstruction,^[9]^[10] and several parts of downtown Managua were never rebuilt. The president's ability to take advantage of the people's suffering proved enormous. By some estimates, his personal wealth soared to US$400 million in 1974.^[11] This overt corruption caused even people who had previously supported the regime, such as business leaders, to turn against Somoza and call for his overthrow.

In December 1974, a guerrilla group seized government hostages at a party in the house of Minister of Agriculture in the Managua suburb Los Robles, among them several leading Nicaraguan officials and Somoza relatives. The siege was postponed specifically until the departure of the American ambassador from the gathering. At 10:50 PM, a group of 15 young guerrillas and their commanders, Pomares and Contreras, entered the house. They killed the Minister, who tried to defend himself, during the takeover.^[7] The guerrillas received US$1 million ransom, and had their official communiqué read over the radio and printed in the newspaper La Prensa. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The guerrillas also succeeded in getting fourteen Sandinista prisoners released from jail, and with them, were flown to Cuba. One of the released prisoners was Daniel Ortega Saavedra, who would later become the president of Nicaragua (1985-1990)^[12] and is the current President of Nicaragua (elected November 2006). The group also lobbied for an increase in wages for National Guard soldiers to 500 córdobas ($71 at the time).^[13] Ortega addresses the UN General Assembly Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) was President of Nicaragua from 1985 to 1990, during the Sandinista government, and is currently the leader of the Sandinista party. ... ISO 4217 Code NIO User(s) Nicaragua Inflation 9. ...

The Somoza government responded with further censorship, intimidation, torture, and murder.^[14]

In 1975, Anastasio Somoza Debayle imposed a state of siege, censoring the press, and threatening all opponents with detention and torture.^[15] Somoza's National Guard also increased its violence against individuals and communities suspected of collaborating with the Sandinistas. Many of the FSLN guerrillas were killed, including its leader and founder Carlos Fonseca Amador in 1976. Fonseca had returned to Nicaragua in 1975 from his exile in Cuba to try to reunite fractures that existed in the FSLN. He and his group were betrayed by a peasant who informed the National Guard that they were in the area. The guerrilla group was ambushed, and Fonseca was wounded in the process. The next morning Fonseca was shot by the National Guard.^[16] Anastasio (Tachito) Somoza Debayle (December 5, 1925 â€“ September 17, 1980) was officially the forty-fourth and forty-fifth President of Nicaragua from May 1, 1967 to May 1, 1972 and from December 1, 1974 to July 17, 1979. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ...

The split of the FSLN

In the aftermath of the Pancasán guerrilla movement, one of FSLN's historical military defeats back in 1967, the organization adopted the "Prolonged Popular War" theory (Guerra Popular Prolongada––GPP) as the FSLN's strategic doctrine. The GPP was based on the "accumulation of forces in silence", while the urban organization recruited on the university campuses and collected funds through bank holdups, the main cadres were to go permanently to the north central mountain zone. There they would build a grassroots peasant support base in preparation for renewed rural guerrilla warfare.^[17]

As a direct consequence of the repressive campaign of the National Guard in 1975 a group within the FSLN's urban mobilization arm began to question the viability of the GPP. In the view of the young orthodox Marxist intellectuals, such as Jaime Wheelock, economic development had turned Nicaragua into a nation of factory workers and wage-earning farm laborers.^[18] The rural guerrilla strategy was rejected in favor of self-defense and urban commando actions by armed union members. Wheelock and his followers were purged by the GPP-dominated National Directorate in October 1975. Wheelock's faction was known as the "Proletarian Tendency".

Shortly after, a third faction arose within the FSLN. The "Insurrectional Tendency," also known as the "Third Way" or Terceristas, led by Daniel Ortega Saavedra and his brother Humberto Ortega Saavedra, was more pragmatic and called for tactical, temporary alliances with non-communists, including the right-wing opposition, in a popular front against the Somoza regime.^[19] By attacking the Guard directly, the Terceristas would demonstrate the weakness of the regime and encourage others to take up arms. Ortega addresses the UN General Assembly Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) was President of Nicaragua from 1985 to 1990, during the Sandinista government, and is currently the leader of the Sandinista party. ... General Humberto Ortega Saavedra is a Nicaraguan military leader and leading Latin American revolutionary strategist. ... In politics, right-wing, the political right, or simply the right, are terms which refer, with no particular precision, to the segment of the political spectrum in opposition to left-wing politics. ... A popular front is a broad coalition of different political groupings, often made up of leftists and centrists who are united by opposition to another group (most often fascist or far-right groups). ... Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ...

In October 1977 "El Grupo de los Doce", known as the "Twelve", a group of prominent Nicaraguan professionals, business leaders, and clergymen allied to the Terceristas, was formed in Costa Rica. The main idea was to organize a provisional government from Costa Rica.^[20] The new strategy of the Terceristas also included unarmed strikes and rioting by labor and student groups coordinated by the FSLN's "United People's Movement" (Movimiento Pueblo Unido - MPU). El Grupo de Los Doce, or Group of Twelve, was a group of members of the Nicaraguan establishment whose support for the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) struggle against dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle played a pivotal role in the acceptance of the Sandinistas by foreign and domestic opinion. ...

On 10 January 1978, Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, the popular editor of the opposition newspaper La Prensa and leader of the "Democratic Union of Liberation" (Unión Democrática de Liberación - UDEL), the bourgeois opposition, was assassinated. Although his assassins were not identified at the time, evidence implicated President Somoza's son and other members of the National Guard.^[21] Spontaneous riots followed in several cities, while the business community organized a general strike demanding Somoza's resignation. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

The Terceristas joined the turmoil in early February with attacks in several Nicaraguan cities. The National Guard responded by further increasing repression and using force to contain and intimidate all government opposition. The nationwide strike that paralyzed the country for ten days weakened the private enterprises and most of them decided to suspend their participation in less than two weeks. Meanwhile, Somoza asserted his intention to stay in power until the end of his presidential term in 1981. The United States government replied with the suspension of all military assistance to the regime. Despite this, the U.S. Congress continued to approve economic assistance to the country for humanitarian reasons.^[22] Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ...

In August, the Terceristas took the initiative by staging a spectacular hostage-taking. Twenty-three Tercerista commandos led by Edén Pastora seized the entire Nicaraguan congress and took nearly 1,000 hostages including Somoza's nephew José Somoza Abrego and cousin Luis Paillais Debayle. Somoza gave in to their demands and paid a $500,000 ransom, released 59 political prisoners (including GPP chief Tomás Borge), and broadcasted a communiqué with FSLN's call for general insurrection. The guerrillas were flown to exile in Panama.^[23] EdÃ©n Pastora GÃ³mez (born January 22, 1937?) was the leader of the ADREN; the largest contra army in southern Nicaragua in the 1980s. ... Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ... Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (born August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a Interior Minister of Nicaragua under the rule of Daniel Ortega. ...

A few days later six Nicaraguan cities rose in revolt. Armed youths took over the highland city of Matagalpa. Tercerista cadres attacked Guard posts in Managua, Masaya, León, Chinandega and Estelí. Large numbers of semiarmed civilians joined the revolt and put the Guard garrisons of the latter four cities under siege. The September Insurrection of 1978 was subdued at the cost of several thousand, mostly civilian, casualties. Members of all three tendencies fought in these uprisings, which began to blur the distinctions between the factions and prepare the way for unified action.^[24] Matagalpa is the capital city of the Matagalpa Department department of Nicaragua. ... This article is about the capital city of Nicaragua. ... Masaya is a stratovolcano in Nicaragua, Central America, with a city of the same name. ... LeÃ³n is a city in Nicaragua, Central America, located at 12. ... Chinandega is the departmental seat of Chinandega department in Nicaragua. ... EstelÃ is the second largest town in northern Nicaragua (after Matagalpa). ...

The reunification of the FSLN

In early 1979, President Jimmy Carter and the United States no longer supported the Somoza regime, but did not want a left-wing government to take power in Nicaragua. The moderate "Broad Opposition Front" (Frente Amplio Opositor - FAO) which opposed Somoza was made up of a conglomeration of dissidents within the government as well as the "Democratic Union of Liberation" (UDEL) and the "Twelve", representatives of the Terceristas. The FAO and Carter came up with a plan that would remove Somoza from office but left no part in government power for the FSLN.^[25] The "Twelve" abandoned the coalition in protest and formed the "National Patriotic Front" (Frente Patriotico Nacional - FPN) together with the "United People's Movement" (MPU). For other persons named Jimmy Carter, see Jimmy Carter (disambiguation). ... Anastasio (Tachito) Somoza Debayle (December 5, 1925 â€“ September 17, 1980) was officially the forty-fourth and forty-fifth President of Nicaragua from May 1, 1967 to May 1, 1972 and from December 1, 1974 to July 17, 1979. ...

With this action the FAO lost its legitimacy in front of the people that didn't want a "Somocismo sin Somoza" (Somocism without Somoza). This strengthened the revolutionary organizations as tens of thousands of youths joined the FSLN and the fight against Somoza. A direct consequence of the massification of the armed struggle in Nicaragua was the official reunification of the FSLN that took place on 7 March 1979. Nine men, three from each tendency, formed the National Directorate which would lead the reunited FSLN. They were: Daniel Ortega Saavedra, Humberto Ortega Saavedra and Víctor Tirado (Terceristas); Tomás Borge, Bayardo Arce, and Henry Ruiz (GPP faction); and Jaime Wheelock, Luis Carrión and Carlos Núñez (Proletarian faction).^[24] Ortega addresses the UN General Assembly Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) was President of Nicaragua from 1985 to 1990, during the Sandinista government, and is currently the leader of the Sandinista party. ... General Humberto Ortega Saavedra is a Nicaraguan military leader and leading Latin American revolutionary strategist. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (born August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a Interior Minister of Nicaragua under the rule of Daniel Ortega. ...

The final insurrection

The FSLN evolved from one of many opposition groups to a leadership role in the overthrow of the Somoza regime. By mid-April 1979, five guerilla fronts opened under the joint command of the FSLN, including an internal front in the capital city Managua. Young guerrilla cadres and the National Guardsmen were clashing almost daily in cities throughout the country. Anastasio Somoza Garc a (1896–September 29, 1956) was a President of Nicaragua. ... This article is about the capital city of Nicaragua. ...

The strategic goal of the Final Offensive was the division of the enemy's forces. Urban insurrection was the crucial element because the FSLN could never hope to achieve simple superiority in men and firepower over the National Guard.^[26]

On June 4, a general strike was called by the FSLN to last until Somoza fell and an uprising was launched in Managua. On June 16, the formation of a provisional Nicaraguan government in exile, consisting of a five-member Junta of National Reconstruction, was announced and organized in Costa Rica. The members of the new junta were Daniel Ortega Saavedra (FSLN), Moisés Hassan Morales (FPN), Sergio Ramírez Mercado (the "Twelve"), Alfonso Robelo Callejas (MDN) and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of La Prensa's editor Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal. By the end of that month, with the exception of the capital, most of Nicaragua was under FSLN control, including León and Matagalpa, the two largest cities in Nicaragua after Managua. is the 155th day of the year (156th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Junta of National Reconstruction ruled Nicaragua between 1979 and 1984. ... Ortega addresses the UN General Assembly Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) was President of Nicaragua from 1985 to 1990, during the Sandinista government, and is currently the leader of the Sandinista party. ... Sergio RamÃrez Mercado (b. ... Alfonso Robelo Callejas (born 11 October 1939), a Nicaraguan businessman, was a member of Los Doce and founder of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN). ... Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (born October 18, 1929) is a Nicaraguan political leader, publisher and former President of Nicaragua. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... LeÃ³n is a city in Nicaragua, Central America, located at 12. ... Matagalpa is the capital city of the Matagalpa Department department of Nicaragua. ...

The provisional government in exile released a government program on July 9 in which it pledged to organize an effective democratic regime, promote political pluralism and universal suffrage, and ban ideological discrimination--except for those promoting the "return of Somoza's rule". Anastasio Somoza Debayle resigned on July 17 1979, handed over power to Francisco Urcuyo Maliaños, and fled to Miami. It was meant that Urcuyo would in turn transfer the government to the revolutionary junta. This agreement was ignored by Urcuyo, who intended to remain in power until the end of Somoza's presidential term in 1981. Two days later Urcuyo left power and fled to Guatemala. is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Anastasio (Tachito) Somoza Debayle (December 5, 1925 â€“ September 17, 1980) was officially the forty-fourth and forty-fifth President of Nicaragua from May 1, 1967 to May 1, 1972 and from December 1, 1974 to July 17, 1979. ... is the 198th day of the year (199th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Francisco Urcuyo MaliaÃ±os (1915â€“2001) was Acting President of Nicaragua for a single day in 1979, following the resignation of Anastasio Somoza Debayle on July 17. ...

On July 19, the FSLN army entered Managua, culminating the Nicaraguan revolution. The insurrection left approximately 50,000 dead and 150,000 Nicaraguans in exile. The five-member junta entered the Nicaraguan capital the next day and assumed power, reiterating its pledge to work for political pluralism, a mixed economic system, and a nonaligned foreign policy.^[27]

Ideologies

Through the media and the works of FSLN leaders such as Carlos Fonseca, the life and times of Augusto César Sandino became the unique symbol of this revolutionary force in Nicaragua. The ideology of Sandinismo gained momentum in 1974, when a Sandinista initiated hostage situation resulted in the Somoza government adhering to FSLN demands and publicly printing and airing work on Sandino in well known newspapers and media outlets. Through the transformation of the Movement for a New Nicaragua (MNN) to the Sandinista National Liberation Front(FSLN)in 1961, Carlos Fonseca and his fellow revolutionary leaders adopted the image of 1930s guerrilla fighter, Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino to gain popular support across Nicaragua. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional ( FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino Augusto NicolÃ¡s CalderÃ³n Sandino (May 18, 1895 â€“ February 21, 1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military presence in Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. ...

During the long struggle against Anastasio Somoza Debayle, the FSLN leaders' internal disagreements over strategy and tactics were reflected in three main factions:

Nevertheless, while ideologies varied between FSLN leaders, all leaders essentially agreed that Sandino provided a path for the Nicaragua masses to take charge, and the FSLN would act as the legitimate vanguard. The extreme end of the ideology links Sandino to Roman Catholicism and portrays him as descending from the mountains in Nicaragua knowing he would be betrayed and killed. Generally however, most Sandinistas associated Sandino on a more practical level, as a heroic and honest person who tried to combat the evil forces of imperialist national and international governments that existed in Nicaragua’s history. Marxism is both the theory and the political practice (that is, the praxis) derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ... General Humberto Ortega Saavedra is a Nicaraguan military leader and leading Latin American revolutionary strategist. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ...

Cuban assistance

Beginning in 1967, the Cuban General Intelligence Directorate, or DGI, had begun to establish ties with various Nicaraguan revolutionary organizations. By 1970 the DGI had managed to train hundreds of Sandinista guerrilla leaders and had vast influence over the organization. In 1969 the DGI had financed and organized an operation to free the jailed Sandinista leader Carlos Fonseca from his prison in Costa Rica. Fonseca was re-captured shortly after the jail break, but after a plane carrying executives from the United Fruit Company was hijacked by the FSLN,^[28] he was freed and allowed to travel to Cuba. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional ( FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... Entrance facade of old United Fruit Building on St. ...

DGI chief Manuel "Redbeard" Piñeiro commented that "of all the countries in Latin America, the most active work being carried out by us is in Nicaragua." However, one should keep in mind that there were many other Cuban operations throughout the world. Manuel PiÃ±eiro Losada (March 12, 1934 â€“ May 14, 1998), also known as Barbarroja (Spanish: red beard) was Cuban revolutionary who became the first head of the Cuban General Intelligence Directorate (DirecciÃ³n General de Inteligencia). ...

The DGI, with Fidel Castro's personal blessing, also collaborated with the FSLN on the botched assassination attempt of Turner B. Shelton, the U.S. ambassador in Managua and a close friend to the Somoza family. The FSLN managed to secure several hostages exchanging them for safe passage to Cuba and a one million dollar ransom. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born on August 13, 1926) is the current President of Cuba but on indefinite medical hiatus. ...

After the successful ouster of Somoza, DGI involvement in the new Sandinista government expanded rapidly. An early indication of the central role that the DGI would play in the Cuban-Nicaraguan relationship is a meeting in Havana on July 27, 1979, at which diplomatic ties between the two countries were re-established after more than 25 years. Julián López Díaz, a prominent DGI agent, was named Ambassador to Nicaragua. This article is about the capital of Cuba. ... is the 208th day of the year (209th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also: 1979 by Smashing Pumpkins. ...

Cuban military and DGI advisors, initially brought in during the Sandinista insurgency, would swell to over 2,500 and operated at all levels of the new Nicaraguan government.

While the Cubans would like to have helped more in the development of Nicaragua towards socialism, they realized that they were no match for the United States' influence throughout Latin America. Following the US invasion of Grenada, countries previously looking for support from Cuba saw that that the United States was likely to take violent action to discourage this. [Banana Republic, Roy Gutman, 1988] Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ...

Cuban assistance after the revolution

The early years of the Nicaraguan revolution had strong ties to Cuba. The Sandinista leaders acknowledged that the FSLN owed a great debt to the communist island. The relationship was made possible because of Cuba’s commitment to the strategy of revolutionary guerrilla warfare. Once the Sandinistas assumed power, Cuba not only gave Nicaragua military advice but also gave sickness assistance and aid to the impoverished Nicaraguan economy. Cuban aid came in the form of educational assistance, health care, vocational training and industry building. In return, Nicaragua provided Cuba with grains and other foodstuffs in order to help them overcome the effects of the US embargo . Once the Sandinistas assumed power, Cuba’s restraint on aid was lifted and it became an essential component of Nicaraguan development strategy. Cuban aid became important because it came in the form of grants and unconditional loans. (Roberto Perez, 1987) Nicaragua during the Somoza period had been nearly 90% dependent on the United States for assistance. In 1980 Cuban-Nicaraguan aid relations became formalized with the formation of the Mixed Commission for Scientific, Economic and Technical Cooperation. This commission is represented on the Cuban side by the State of Committee for Economic Cooperation and on the Nicaraguan side by the Ministry of Economic Cooperation. New aid agreements were negotiated every year within the framework of the commission. In this context the commission provides a vehicle for Nicaragua to present its various needs and for the Cubans to evaluate which ones they can fulfill (Gary Prevost, 126). The commission has overseen approximately 300 million dollars (U.S) between the years 1979 and 1987 in assistance to Nicaragua and according to Prevost it does not include military aid or the cost of schooling Nicaraguans in Cuba. The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... Food from plant sources Food is any substance normally eaten or drunk by living organisms. ... The United States embargo against Cuba (described in Cuba as el bloqueo, Spanish for the blockade) is an economic, commercial, and financial embargo imposed on Cuba on February 7, 1962. ... Look up Aid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Somoza was the name of an influential political dynasty in Nicaragua. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ...

Educational assistance

Cuba was instrumental in the Nicaraguan Literacy Campaign. Nicaragua was a country with a very high rate of illiteracy, but the campaign succeeded in lowering the rate from 50% to 12%. This was a huge campaign to take on but it succeeded with the help of Cuba. The revolution in Cuban education since the ousting of the US-backed Batista regime not only served as a model for Nicaragua but also provided technical assistance and advice. The Literacy Campaign was one of the success stories of the Sandinistas' reign and Cuba played an important part in this, providing teachers on a yearly basis after the revolution. Prevost states that “Teachers were not the only ones studying in Cuba, about 2,000 primary and secondary students were studying on the Isle of Youth and the cost was covered by the host country (Cuba)” (Prevost, 126). The Literacy campaign was later than many other countries in the region; therefore, they had good models and mentors to guide them to success. ... Educational oversight Minister of Education Ministry of Education Luis Ignacio GÃ³mez GutiÃ©rrez National education budget $2752 million CP ($246 CP per capita)[1] (2002) Primary languages Spanish system Literacy (2004) â€¢ Men â€¢ Women 100[2]% 100[3]% 100[4]% Enrollment â€¢ Primary â€¢ Secondary â€¢ Post-secondary Attainment â€¢ Secondary diploma â€¢ Post-secondary... General Fulgencio Batista (pronounced or ) y ZaldÃvar (January 16, 1901 â€“ August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician. ...

Health care

According to Gary Prevost, health care was another area where the Sandinistas made incredible gains and are widely recognized for this accomplishment. In this area Cuba also played a role by again offering expertise and know-how to Nicaragua. Over 1,500 Cuban doctors worked in Nicaragua and provided more than five million consultations. Also Cuban personnel have been essential in the elimination of polio, decrease in measles and lowering the infant mortality rate. He also states that Cuban personnel have made it possible for Nicaragua to have a truly national health care system reaching a majority of its citizens. (Prevost 127) Poliomyelitis (polio), or infantile paralysis, is a viral paralytic disease. ...

Vocational assistance

Cuba has participated in the training of Nicaraguan workers in the use of new machinery imported to Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan revolution put the country’s government on the United States' black book; therefore the Sandinistas would not receive any aid from the United States. The United States embargo against Nicaragua, imposed by the Ronald Reagan in May of 1985,^[29] made it impossible for Nicaragua to receive spare parts for American-made machines, so this led Nicaragua to look to other socialist countries for help. Cuba was the best choice because of the shared language and proximity and also because it had imported similar machinery over the years. Nicaraguans would come to Cuba for short periods of 3 to 6 months and this training closely involved close to 3,000 workers (Prevost, 128). Many countries, including Canada and the UK sent farm equipment to Nicaragua. Reagan redirects here. ...

Industry building

Cuba helped Nicaragua in huge projects such as building roads, power plants and sugar mills. Cuba also attempted to help Nicaragua build the first overland route linking Nicaragua’s Atlantic and Pacific coasts in order to expedite the flow of the $1 Billion of Soviet military aid used to enable the FSLN administration. The road was meant to traverse 260 miles (420 km) of jungle. Full completion of the road and usage was hindered by the Contra war, and it was never completed.^{[citation needed]} A power station (also power plant) is a facility for the generation of electric power. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... The Atlantic Ocean is Earths second-largest ocean, covering approximately one_fifth of its surface. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... State motto (Russian): ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ… ÑÑ‚Ñ€Ð°Ð½, ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÐ¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑŒ! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) (Translated: Workers of the world, unite!) Capital Moscow Official language None; Russian (de facto) Government Federation of Soviet republics Area - Total - % water 1st before collapse 22,402,200 kmÂ² Approx. ... Box Log Falls, Lamington National Park, Queensland, Australia Jungle usually refers to a dense forest in a hot climate, such as a tropical rainforest. ... For other uses, see Contra. ...

Another significant feat was the building of the Tipitapa-Malacatoya sugar mill. It was completed and inaugurated during a visit by Fidel Castro in January 1985. The plant used the newest technology available and was built by workers trained in Cuba. Also during this visit Castro announced that all debts incurred on this project were absolved (Prevost, 127). Cuba also provided numerous technicians to aid in the sugar harvest and assist in the rejuvenation of several old sugar mills. Cubans also assisted in building schools and similar projects.^{[citation needed]}

Sandinista rule (1979–1990)

The Sandinistas inherited a country in ruins with a debt of 1.6 billion dollars (US), an estimated 50,000 war dead, 600,000 homeless, and a devastated economic infrastructure.^[30] To begin the task of establishing a new government, they created a Council (or junta) of National Reconstruction, made up of five members – Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega and Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce "the Twelve"), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). The preponderance of power, however, remained with the Sandinistas and their mass organizations, including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Nicaraguan Women's Association (Asociación de Mujeres Nicaragüenses Luisa Amanda Espinoza), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (Unión Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos). Image File history File links Broom_icon. ... One thousand million (1,000,000,000) is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001. ... USD redirects here. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... Sergio RamÃrez Mercado (b. ... El Grupo de Los Doce, or Group of Twelve, was a group of members of the Nicaraguan establishment whose support for the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) struggle against dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle played a pivotal role in the acceptance of the Sandinistas by foreign and domestic opinion. ... Alfonso Robelo Callejas (born 11 October 1939), a Nicaraguan businessman, was a member of Los Doce and founder of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN). ... Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (born October 18, 1929) is a Nicaraguan political leader, publisher and former President of Nicaragua. ...

The dominant rebel leaders who controlled the FSLN such as Daniel Ortega were strongly Marxist. However, the new junta initially contained a broad spectrum of ideologies. Upon assuming power, its political platform included the following:

The FSLN's literacy campaign, which saw teachers flood the countryside, is often noted as their greatest success. Within six months, half a million people had been taught rudimentary reading, bringing the national illiteracy rate down from over 50% to just under 12%. Over 100,000 Nicaraguans participated as literacy teachers. One of the stated aims of the literacy campaign was to create a literate electorate which would be able to make informed choices at the promised elections. The great success of the literacy campaign was recognized by UNESCO with the award of a Nadezhda Krupskaya International Prize. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ... Nadezhda Krupskaya Nadezhda K. Krupskaya ( February 26, 1869 - February 27, 1939) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary. ...

The FSLN also created neighborhood groups similar to the Cuban Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, called Sandinista Defense Committees (Comités de Defensa Sandinista or CDS). Especially in the early days following the overthrow of Somoza, the CDS's served as de facto units of local governance. Their obligations included political education, the organization of Sandinista rallies, the distribution of food rations, organization of neighborhood/regional cleanup and recreational activities, and policing to control looting, and the apprehension of counter-revolutionaries. The CDS's organized civilian defense efforts against Contra activities and a network of intelligence systems in order to apprehend their supporters. These activities led critics of the Sandinistas to argue that the CDS was a system of local spy networks for the government used to stifle political dissent, and it is true that the CDS did hold limited powers -- such as the ability to suspend privileges such as driver licenses and passports -- if locals refused to cooperate with the new government. After the initiation of full-scale U.S. military involvement in the Nicaraguan conflict the CDS was empowered to enforce wartime bans on political assembly and association with other political parties (i.e. -- parties associated with the "Contras")..^{[citation needed]} Long Live Socialism CDR billboard in countryside on the way from Havana to Pinar del Rio. ...

By 1980, conflicts began to emerge between the Sandinista and non-Sandinista members of the governing junta. Violeta Chamorro and Alfonso Robelo resigned from the governing junta in 1980, and rumours began that members of the Ortega junta would consolidate power amongst themselves. These allegations spread, and rumors intensified that it was Ortega's goal to turn Nicaragua into a state modeled after Cuban Communism. In 1979 and 1980, former Somoza supporters and ex-members of Somoza's National Guard formed irregular military forces, while the original core of the FSLN began to splinter. Armed opposition to the Sandinista Government eventually divided into two main groups: The Fuerza Democratica Nicaraguense (FDN), a U.S. supported army formed in 1981 by the CIA, U.S. State Department, and former members of the widely condemned Somoza-era Nicaraguan National Guard; and the Alianza Revolucionaria Democratica (ARDE), a group that had existed since before the FSLN and was led by Sandinista founder and former FSLN supreme commander, Eden Pastora, a.k.a. "Commander Zero".^[31] and Milpistas, former anti-Somoza rural militias, which eventually formed the largest pool of recruits for the Contras. Although independent and often at conflict with each other, these guerrilla bands -- along with a few others -- all became generally known as "Contras" (short for "contrarrevolucionarios", en. "counter-revolutionaries").^[32] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Alfonso Robelo Callejas (born 11 October 1939), a Nicaraguan businessman, was a member of Los Doce and founder of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN). ... This article is about the form of society and political movement. ...

The opposition militias were initially organized and largely remained segregated according to regional affiliation and political backgrounds. They conducted attacks on economic, military, and civilian targets. During the Contra war, the Sandinistas arrested suspected members of the Contra militias and censored publications they accused of collaborating with the enemy (i.e. the U.S., the FDN, and ARDE, among others).

1982 - 1988 State of Emergency

In March 1982 the Sandinistas declared an official State of Emergency. They argued that this was a response to attacks by counter-revolutionary forces.^[33] The State of Emergency lasted six years, until January 1988, when it was lifted. Under the new "Law for the Maintenance of Order and Public Security" the "Tribunales Populares Anti-Somozistas" allowed for the indefinite holding of suspected counter-revolutionaries without trial. The State of Emergency, however, most notably affected rights and guarantees contained in the “Statute on Rights and Guarantees of Nicaraguans. [7] Many civil liberties were curtailed or canceled such as the freedom to organize demonstrations, the inviolability of the home, freedom of the press, freedom of speech and, the freedom to strike.[8] All independent news program broadcasts were suspended. In total, twenty-four programs were cancelled. In addition, Sandinista censor Nelba Cecilia Blandón issued a decree ordering all radio stations to hook up every six hours to governemt radio station, La Voz de La Defensa de La Patria.^[34]

The rights affected also included certain procedural guarantees in the case of detention including habeas corpus.[9] The State of Emergency was not lifted during the 1984 elections. There were many instances where rallies of opposition parties were physically broken up by Sandinsta youth or pro-Sandinista mobs. Opponents to the State of Emergency argued its intent was to crush resistance to the FSLN. James Wheelock justified the actions of the Directorate by saying “… We are annulling the license of the false prophets and the oligarchs to attack the revolution.”^[35] On October 5th, 1985 the Sandinistas broadened the 1982 State of Emergency and suspended many more civil rights. A new regulation also forced any organization outside of the government to first submit any statement it wanted to make public to the censorsip bureau for prior censorship. ^[36] Notably, emergency measures were already in place before 1982 under the FSLN. In December of 1979 special courts called "Tribunales Especiales" were established to process trial of ex-Guardia and Contra rebels. These courts operated through relaxed rules of evidence and due process and were often staffed by new law students and inexperienced lawyers. Under these courts, up to 8,000 ex-Guardia members were tried. By 1986 only 2157 remained in incarceration, out of these, only 39 were left alive by 1989.

1984 election

While the Sandinistas encouraged grassroots pluralism, they were considerably less enthusiastic about national elections. They argued that popular support was expressed in the insurrection and that further appeals to popular support would be a waste of scarce resources.^[38] International pressure and domestic opposition eventually pressed the government toward a national election.^[39] Tomás Borge warned that the elections were a concession, an act of generosity and of political necessity. ^[40]A broad range of political parties, ranging in political orientation from far-left to far-right, competed for power. ^[41] Following promulgation of a new populist constitution, Nicaragua held national elections in 1984. Independent electoral observers from around the world – including groups from the UN as well as observers from Western Europe – found that the elections had been fair.^[42] Several groups, however, disputed this: including UNO, a broad coalition of anti-Sandinista activists, COSEP, an organization of business leaders, the Contra group "FDN", organized by former Somozan-era National Guardsmen, landowners, businessmen, peasant highlanders, and what some claimed as their patron, the U.S. government.^[43] Although initially willing to stand in the '84 elections, the UNO, headed by Arturo Cruz (a former Sandinista) declined participation in the elections based on their own objections to the restrictions placed on the electoral process by the State of Emergency and the official advisement of President Ronald Reagan's State Department, who feared that their participation would legitimize the election process. Among other parties that abstained was COSEP, who had warned the FSLN that they would decline participation unless freedom of the press was reinstituted. Coordinadora Democrática (CD) also refused to file candidates and urged Nicaraguans not to take part in the election, the Independent Liberal Party (PLI), headed by Virgilio Godoy Reyes announced its refusal to participate in October..^[44] Consequently, when the elections went ahead the U.S. raised objections based upon political restrictions instituted by the State of Emergency (e.g. censorship of the press, cancellation of habeas corpus, and the curtailing of free assembly). UN and U.N. redirect here. ... A current understanding of Western Europe. ... ... Arturo JosÃ© Cruz Porras, a Nicaraguan banker and technocrat, became involved in politics during the Sandinista (FSLN) era. ... Reagan redirects here. ... The United States Department of State, often referred to as the State Department, is the Cabinet-level foreign affairs agency of the United States government, equivalent to foreign ministries in other countries. ...

Daniel Ortega and Sergio Ramírez were elected president and vice-president, and the FSLN won an overwhelming 61 out of 96 seats in the new National Assembly, having taken 67% of the vote on a turnout of 75%.^[44] Despite international validation of the elections by multiple political and independent observers (virtually all from among U.S. allies) the United States refused to recognize the elections, with President Ronald Reagan denouncing the elections as a sham. The National Assembly (Spanish: Asamblea Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Nicaragua. ...

Library of Congress Country Studies states that several opposition parties boycotted the election, arguing that the Sandinistas were manipulating the electoral process and their domination of government organs, mass organizations groups, and much of the media created a climate of intimidation.^[44]^[45] The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA), freely available for use by researchers. ...

Daniel Ortega began his six-year presidential term on January 10, 1985. After the United States Congress turned down continued funding of the Contras in April 1985, the Reagan administration ordered a total embargo on United States trade with Nicaragua the following month, accusing the Sandinista regime of threatening United States security in the region.^[44]

1990 election

Due to factors such as natural disasters, the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (which stopped aid), state corruption and, inefficient economic policies, the state of the Nicaraguan economy declined.^{[citation needed]} The elections of 1990, which had been mandated by the constitution passed in 1987, saw the Bush administration funnell $49.75m of ‘non-lethal’ aid to the Contras, as well as $9m to the opposition UNO - equivalent to $2b worth of intervention by a foreign power in a US election at the time, and proportionately five times the amount George Bush had spent on his own election campaign.^[46]^[47]. When Violetta Chamorro visited the White House in November 1989, the US pledged to maintain the blockade against Nicaragua unless Violeta Chamorro won. ^[48]. The rise of Gorbachev Although reform stalled between 1964–1982, the generational shift gave new momentum for reform. ... Statistical regions of Europe as delineated by the United Nations (UN definition of Eastern Europe marked red): Northern Europe Western Europe Eastern Europe Southern Europe Pre-1989 division between the West (grey) and Eastern Bloc (orange) superimposed on current borders: Russia (dark orange), other countries formerly part of the USSR... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 1989 (MCMLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar). ...

In August 1989, the month that campaigning began, the Contras redeployed 8,000 troops into Nicaragua, after a funding boost from Washington, becoming in effect the armed wing of the UNO, carrying out a violent campaign of intimidation. No fewer than 50 FSLN candidates were assassinated. The Contras also distributed thousands of UNO leaflets.

Years of conflict had left 50,000 casualties and $12b of damages in a society of 3.5m people and an annual GNP of $2b. The proportionately equivalent figures for the US would have been 5 million casualties and $25 trillion lost. After the war, a survey was taken of voters: 75.6% agreed that if the Sandinistas had won, the war would never have ended. 91.8% of those who voted for the UNO agreed with this. (William I Robinson, op cit)^[49] The Library of Congress Country Studies on Nicaragua states: The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA), freely available for use by researchers. ...

Economy

The new government, formed in 1979 and dominated by the Sandinistas, resulted in a new model of economic development. The new leadership was conscious of the social inequities produced during the previous thirty years of unrestricted economic growth and was determined to make the country's workers and peasants, the "economically underprivileged," the prime beneficiaries of the new society. Consequently, in 1980 and 1981, unbridled incentives to private investment gave way to institutions designed to redistribute wealth and income. Private property would continue to be allowed, but all land belonging to the Somozas was confiscated.^[50]

However, the ideology of the Sandinistas put the future of the private sector and of private ownership of the means of production in doubt. Even though under the new government both public and private ownership were accepted, government spokespersons occasionally referred to a reconstruction phase in the country's development, in which property owners and the professional class would be tapped for their managerial and technical expertise. After reconstruction and recovery, the private sector would give way to expanded public ownership in most areas of the economy. Despite such ideas, which represented the point of view of a faction of the government, the Sandinista government remained officially committed to a mixed economy.^[51]

Economic growth was uneven in the 1980s. Restructuring of the economy and the rebuilding immediately following the end of the civil war caused the GDP to jump about 5 percent in 1980 and 1981. Each year from 1984 to 1990, however, showed a drop in the GDP. Reasons for the contraction included the reluctance of foreign banks to offer new loans, the diversion of funds to fight the new insurrection against the government, and, after 1985, the total embargo on trade with the United States, formerly Nicaragua's largest trading partner. After 1985 the government chose to fill the gap between decreasing revenues and mushrooming military expenditures by printing large amounts of paper money. Inflation skyrocketed, peaking in 1988 at more than 14,000 percent annually.^[52]

Measures taken by the government to lower inflation were largely wiped out by natural disaster. In early 1988, the administration of Daniel José Ortega Saavedra (Sandinista junta coordinator 1979-85, president 1985-90) established an austerity program to lower inflation. Price controls were tightened, and a new currency was introduced. As a result, by August 1988, inflation had dropped to an annual rate of 240 percent. The following month, however, Hurricane Joan cut a devastating path directly across the center of the country. Damage was extensive, and the government's program of massive spending to repair the infrastructure destroyed its anti-inflation measures.^[53]

In its eleven years in power, the Sandinista government never overcame most of the economic inequalities that it inherited from the Somoza era. Years of war, policy missteps, natural disasters, and the effects of the United States trade embargo all hindered economic development. The early economic gains of the Sandinistas were wiped out by seven years of sometimes precipitous economic decline, and in 1990, by most standards, Nicaragua and most Nicaraguans were considerably poorer than they were in the 1970s.^[54]

Women in revolutionary Nicaragua

The women of Nicaragua prior to, during and after the revolution played a prominent role within the nation’s society as they have commonly been recognized, throughout history and across all Latin American states, as its backbone. Nicaraguan women were therefore directly affected by all of the positive and negative events that took place during this revolutionary period. The victory of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) in 1979 brought about major changes and gains for women, mainly in legislation, broad educational opportunities, training programs for working women, childcare programs to help women enter the work force and greatly increased participation and even leadership positions in a whole range of political activities.^[55] This, in turn, reduced the great burdens that the women of Nicaragua were faced with prior to the revolution. During the Sandinista government, women were more active politically. The great majority of members of the neighborhood committees (Comités de Defensa Sandinista) were women. By 1987, 31% of the executive positions in the Sandinista government, 27% of the leadership positions of the FSLN, and 25% of the FSLN's active membership were women.^[56] It has been suggested that Women and the Armed Struggle in Nicaragua be merged into this article or section. ... The women in revolutionary Nicaragua played a significant and uncharacteristic role in the revolution as guerillas in the armed forces, subsequently challenging their traditional roles as mother and caregiver. ...

Supporters of the Sandinistas see their era as characterized by the creation and implementation of successful social programs which were free and made widely available to the entire nation. Some of the more successful programs for women that were implemented by the Sandinistas were in the areas of Education Nicaraguan Literacy Campaign, Health, and Housing. Providing subsidies for basic foodstuffs and the introduction of mass employment were also memorable contributions of the FSLN. The Sandinistas were particularly advantageous for the women of Nicaraguan as they promoted progressive views on gender as early as 1969 claiming that the revolution would “abolish the detestable discrimination that women have suffered with regard to men and establish economic, political and cultural equality between men and women.” This was evident as the FSLN began integrating women into their ranks by 1967, unlike other left-wing guerilla groups in the region. Considering the Feminist Ideology During the Sandinista Revolution however, demonstrates that this goal was not fully reached because the roots of gender inequality were not explicitly challenged or deconstructed. Women's participation within the public sphere was also substantial, as many took part in the armed struggle as part of the FSLN or as part of counter-revolutionary forces.^{[citation needed]} The Literacy campaign was later than many other countries in the region; therefore, they had good models and mentors to guide them to success. ... VIoleta Chamorro- President elect in 1990. ...

Nicaraguan women also organized independently in support of the revolution and their cause. Some of those organizations were the Socialist Party (1963), Federación Democrática (which support the FSLN in rural areas), and Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Asociacion de Mujeres Nicaraguenses Luisa Amanda Espinosa, AMNLAE). However, since Daniel Ortega, was defeated in the 1990 election by the United Nicaraguan Opposition (UNO) coalition headed by Violeta Chamorro, the situation for women in Nicaragua was seriously altered. In terms of women and the labor market, by the end of 1991 AMNLAE reported that almost 16,000 working women- 9,000 agricultural laborers, 3,000 industrial workers, and 3,800 civil servants, including 2,000 in health, 800 in education, and 1,000 in administration- had lost their jobs.^[57] The change in government also resulted in the drastic reduction or suspension of all Nicaraguan social programs, which brought back the burdens characteristic of pre-revolutionary Nicaragua. The women were forced to maintain and supplement community social services on their own without economic aid or technical and human resource. The Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan Women (Spanish: , AMNLAE) was initially established in 1977 under the name Association of Women Concerned about National Crisis (, AMPRONAC). ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... The United Nicaraguan Opposition or UNO, was a coalition party that ran in the 1990 elections in Nicaragua. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

1980 literacy campaign

One of the major contributions to Nicaraguan society during the Sandinista rule was the 1980 Literacy Campaign, which was the most prominent event with regards to the new education system. Illiteracy was significantly reduced from 50.3% to 12.9%, which resulted in a major impact on the youth and development of the country. One of the government’s major concerns was the previous education system under the Somoza regime which did not see education as a major factor on the development of the country. As mentioned in the Historical Program of the FSLN of 1969, education was seen as a right and the pressure to stay committed to the promises made in the program was even stronger. 1980 was declared the “Year of Literacy” and the major goals of the campaign that started only 8 months after the FSLN took over. This included the eradication of illiteracy, the integration of different classes, races, gender and age, more political awareness and the strengthening of political and economic participation of the Nicaraguan people. ^[58] ^[59] ^[60] ^[61] The Literacy campaign was later than many other countries in the region; therefore, they had good models and mentors to guide them to success. ... Image File history File links Literacy2. ... Image File history File links Literacy2. ...

Sandinistas vs. Contras

Upon assuming office in 1981, U.S. President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. His administration authorized the CIA to begin financing, arming and training rebels, most of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists (contrarrevolucionarios in Spanish).^[62] This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-Communist forces chose to embrace. Eden Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces, who were not associated with the "Somozistas," also resisted the Sandinistas. For other uses, see Contra. ... The Iran-Contra Affair was a political scandal occurring in 1987 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration in which members of the executive branch sold weapons to Iran, an avowed enemy, and illegally used the profits to continue funding anti-Communist rebels, the Contras, in Nicaragua. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... Reagan redirects here. ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ... CIA redirects here. ... For other uses, see Contra. ... Edén Pastora Gómez (born January 22, 1937?) was the leader of the ADREN; the largest contra army in southern Nicaragua in the 1980s. ...

The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica (see Eden Pastora cited below) to the south. As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's Corinto harbour,^[63] an action condemned by the World Court as illegal. The U.S. also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and, as with Cuba, the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo.^[64] Corinto [kOrEnÂ´tO] is a town of 17,000 (1995 population) on the northwest Pacific coast of Nicaragua and is one of the most important cities and port in the department of Chinandega. ... The World Court refers collectively to the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) and its successor the International Court of Justice (ICJ). ... President Reagan, with his Cabinet and staff, in the Oval Office (February 4, 1981) Headed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan from 1981 to 1989, the Reagan Administration was conservative, steadfastly anti-Communist and in favor of tax cuts and smaller government. ...

The armed resistance to the Sandinistas in Costa Rica initially called itself the Nicaraguan Revolutionary Democratic Alliance (ADREN) and was known as the 15th of September Legion. It later formed an alliance, called the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN), which comprised other groups including MISURASATA and the Nicaraguan Democratic Union. Together, the members of these groups were generally called Contras. The Sandinistas condemned them as terrorists, and human rights organizations expressed serious concerns about the nature and frequency of Contra attacks on civilians. In 1982, under pressure from Congress, the U.S. State Department declared Contra activities terrorism.^{[citation needed]} This meant the US could no longer openly support the Contras. The Congressional Intelligence Committee confirmed reports of Contra atrocities such as rape, torture, summary executions, and indiscriminate killings. The Nicaraguan Democratic Force (Fuerza Democratica Nicaraguense, or FDN) was one of the earliest Contra groups formed in 1980 in Honduras. ... The Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN, ) was founded in late 1980 by JosÃ© Francisco Cardenal, an early leader of the anti-Sandinista rebel movement that became known as the Nicaraguan Contras. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate President pro tempore Dick Cheney, (R) since January 20, 2001 Robert C. Byrd, (D) since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political... Department of State redirects here. ...

After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran (then engaged in a vicious war with Iraq, which was also receiving US military aid at the time) and channelling the proceeds to the Contras (see the Iran-Contra Affair).^[65] When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame. The Iran-Contra Affair was a political scandal occurring in 1987 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration in which members of the executive branch sold weapons to Iran, an avowed enemy, and illegally used the profits to continue funding anti-Communist rebels, the Contras, in Nicaragua. ... The National Security Council (NSC) of the United States is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and cabinet officials. ... In the U.S. Army, Air Force and Marine Corps, a lieutenant colonel is a commissioned officer superior to a major and inferior to a colonel. ... Oliver Laurence North (born October 7, 1943 in San Antonio, Texas) is most well known for his involvement in the Iran-Contra Affair. ...

Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on links between the Contras and drug imports to the US concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems."[12] According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, the US-backed president of Panama. John Forbes Kerry (born December 11, 1943) is the junior United States Senator from Massachusetts, in his fourth term of office. ... U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations is a standing committee of the United States Senate. ... The National Security Archive is a 501(c)(3) non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in Washington, D.C. Founded in 1985 by Thomas Blanton, it archives and publishes declassified U.S. government files concerning selected topics of American foreign policy. ... For other persons named Noriega, see Noriega (disambiguation). ...

The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance,^[66] linking the origins of crack cocaine in California (largely aimed at its African-American population) to the CIA-Contra alliance. Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 led to the same conclusions. However, the Justice Department denied the allegations, and the mainstream US media downplayed them. The Mercs sections vary by day of the week, but Business, Sports, and The Valley are standard daily fare. ... Gary Webb Gary Webb (August 31, 1955 â€“ December 10, 2004) was a controversial American investigative journalist, best known for his 1996 Dark Alliance investigative report series, written for the San Jose Mercury News. ... A pile of crack cocaine â€˜rocksâ€™. Crack cocaine is a solid, smokeable form of cocaine and is a highly addictive drug popular for its intense psychoactive high. ... This article is about the U.S. state. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Protestantism (chiefly Baptist and Methodist); Roman Catholicism; Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with freedom of information legislation. ... Retail selling Street selling is the bottom of the chain and can be accomplished through purchasing from prostitutes, through cloaked retail stores or refuse houses for users in the act located in red-light districts which often also deal in paraphernalia, dealers marketing merriment at night clubs and other events... The United States Department of Justice (DOJ) is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans. ...

The Contra war unfolded differently in the northern and southern zones of Nicaragua. Contras based in Costa Rica operated on Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, which is sparsely populated by indigenous groups including the Miskito, Sumo, Rama, Garifuna, and Mestizo. Unlike Spanish-speaking western Nicaragua, the Atlantic Coast is predominantly English-speaking and was largely ignored by the Somoza regime. The costeños did not participate in the uprising against Somoza and viewed Sandinismo with suspicion from the outset. For other uses, see Mosquito (disambiguation). ... The Sumo (also known as Sumu) are a people that live on the eastern coasts of Nicaragua and Honduras, an area commonly known as the Mosquito Coast. ... The Rama are an indigenous people of Nicaragua. ... GarÃfuna is a spanish term for the people and language of the GarÃnagu. ... Language(s) Predominantly Spanish, (with a minority of other languages), while MestiÃ§os speaks Portuguese Religion(s) Christianity (Predominantly Roman Catholic, with a minority of Protestant and other Religions) Related ethnic groups European (mostly Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian), Amerindian people, Austronesian people, Hispanics and Latinos Mestizo (Portuguese: MestiÃ§o... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Relationship with the Catholic Church

The Roman Catholic Church’s relationship with the Sandinistas was extremely complex. Initially, the Church was committed to supporting the Somoza regime. The Somoza dynasty was willing to secure the Church a prominent place in society as long as it did not attempt to subvert the authority of the regime. Under the constitution of 1950 the Roman Catholic Church was recognized as the official religion and church-run schools flourished. It was not until the late 1970s that the Church began to speak out against the corruption and human rights abuses that characterized the Somoza regime. // Pre-Revolutionary Church-State Relations The Catholic Church has a long history of close relations with the state and government in power. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ...

The Catholic hierarchy initially disapproved of the Sandinistas' revolutionary struggle against the Somoza dynasty. In fact, the revolutionaries were perceived as proponents of “godless communism” that posed a threat to the traditionally privileged place that the Church occupied within Nicaraguan society. Nevertheless, the increasing corruption and repression characterizing the Somoza rule and the likelihood that the Sandinistas would emerge victorious ultimately influenced Archbishop Miguel Obando y Bravo to declare formal support for the Sandinistas' armed struggle. Throughout the revolutionary struggle, the Sandinistas enjoyed the grassroots support of clergy who were influenced by the reforming zeal of Vatican II and dedicated to a “preferential option for the poor” (for comparison, see liberation theology). Numerous Christian base communities (CEBs) were created in which lower level clergy and laity took part in consciousness raising initiatives to educate the peasants about the institutionalized violence they were suffering from. Some priests took a more active role in supporting the revolutionary struggle. For example, Father Gaspar García Laviana took up arms and became a member of FSLN. Miguel Cardinal Obando y Bravo (born February 2, 1926) was the Archbishop of Managua from 1985 until his resignation on March 12, 2005. ... The Second Vatican Council, or Vatican II, was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church opened under Pope John XXIII in 1962 and closed under Pope Paul VI in 1965. ... Liberation theology is a school of theology within the Catholic Church that focuses on Jesus Christ as not only the Redeemer but also the Liberator of the oppressed. ... Father Gaspar Garcia Laviana (called MartÃn as nom de guerre) was a Nicaraguan priest who took up arms to fight as solider with the Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN) in 1978. ...

Soon after the Sandinistas assumed power, the hierarchy began to oppose the Sandinistas government. The Archbishop was a vocal source of domestic opposition. The hierarchy was alleged to be motivated by fear of the emergence of the 'popular church' which challenged their centralized authority. The hierarchy also opposed social reforms implemented by the Sandinistas to aid the poor, allegedly because they saw it as a threat to their traditionally privileged position within society.

In response to this perceived opposition, the Sandinistas shut down the church-run Radio Católica radio station on multiple occasions.

The Sandinistas' relationship with the Roman Catholic Church deteriorated as the Contra War dragged on. The hierarchy refused to speak out against the counterrevolutionary activities of the contras and failed to denounce American military aid. State media accused the Catholic Church of being reactionary and supporting the Contras. According to former President Ortega, "The conflict with the church was strong, and it costs us, but I don't think it was our fault… …There were so many people being wounded every day, so many people dying, and it was hard for us to understand the position of the church hierarchy in refusing to condemn the contras." The hierarchy-state tensions were brought to the forefront with Pope John Paul II 1983 visit to Nicaragua. Hostility to the Catholic Church became so great that at one point, FSLN militants shouted down Pope John Paul II as he tried to say Mass.[13] Therefore, while the activities of the 'popular church' contributed to the success of the Sandinista revolution, the hierarchy’s opposition was a major factor in the downfall of the revolutionary government. Catholic Church redirects here. ... Look up contra in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In March 1983 Pope John Paul II made a historic visit to Nicaragua. ...

Human rights under the Sandinistas

The only Independent human rights organization in Nicaragua before and during Sandinista rule was known as the Permanent Human Rights Commission. (CPDH) However, after 1985 it was ordered to subit all its monthly human rights reports to the FSLN censors for priorsorship. ^[67] All other human rights organizations allowed into Nicaragua operated under the conditions set forth by the FSLN government, or were sponsored and operated by the FSLN itself. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in a 1981 report found evidence for mass executions in the period following the revolution. It stated "In the Commission’s view, while the government of Nicaragua clearly intended to respect the lives of all those defeated in the civil war. During the weeks immediately subsequent to the Revolutionary triumph, when the government was not in effective control, illegal executions took place which violated the right to life, and these acts have not been investigated and the persons responsible have not been punished."^[68] The IACHR also stated that: "The Commission is of the view that the new regime did not have, and does not now have, a policy of violating the right to life of political enemies, including among the latter the former guardsmen of the Government of General Somoza, whom a large sector of the population of Nicaragua held responsible for serious human rights violations during the former regime; proof of the foregoing is the abolition of the death penalty and the high number of former guardsmen who were prisoners and brought to trial for crimes that constituted violations of human rights." ^[69] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in Spanish, CIDH) is one of the two bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. ...

A 1983 report from the same source documented allegations of human rights violations against the Miskito Indians, which were alleged to have taken place after opposition forces (the Contras) infiltrated a Miskito village in order to launch attacks against government soldiers, and as part of a subsequent forced relocation program. Allegations included arbitrary imprisonment without trial, "disappearances" of such prisoners, forced relocations, and destruction of property.^[70] For other uses, see Contra. ... Disappear redirects here. ...

In its 1991 annual report the Inter-American Commission stated that "In September 1990, the Commission was informed of the discovery of common graves in Nicaragua, especially in areas where fighting had occurred. The information was provided by the Nicaraguan Pro Human Rights Association, which had received its first complaint in June 1990. By December 1991, that Association had received reports of 60 common graves and had investigated 15 of them. While most of the graves seem to be the result of summary executions by members of the Sandinista People's Army or the State Security, some contain the bodies of individuals executed by the Nicaraguan Resistance."[14]

The 1992 annual report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights contains details of mass graves and investigations which suggest that mass executions had been carried out. One such grave contained 75 corpses of peasants who were believed to have been executed in 1984 by government security forces pretending to be members of the contras. Another grave was also found in the town of Quininowas which contained six corpses, believed to be an entire family killed by government forces when the town was invaded. A further 72 graves were reported as being found, containing bodies of people, the majority of whom were believed to have been executed by agents of the state and some also by the contras. However, the report does not state that these executions were part of government policy.[15]

Human rights violations by the Sandinistas

TIME magazine in 1983 published allegations of human rights violations in an article which stated that "According to Nicaragua's Permanent Commission on Human Rights, the regime detains several hundred people a month; about half of them are eventually released, but the rest simply disappear." TIME also interviewed a former deputy chief of Nicaraguan military counterintelligence, who stated that he had fled Nicaragua after being ordered to eliminate 800 Miskito prisoners and make it look like as if they had died in combat.^[71] (Clockwise from upper left) Time magazine covers from May 7, 1945; July 25, 1969; December 31, 1999; September 14, 2001; and April 21, 2003. ... For other uses, see Mosquito (disambiguation). ...

The Heritage Foundation, a conservative U.S. think tank, in a 1983 report alleged various human rights violations, including censorship, creating a neighborhood system which encouraged spying and reporting by neighbors, torture by state security forces, thousands of political prisoners, assassinations both inside and outside Nicaragua, and that a former Sandinista Intelligence officer has stated that 5,000 were killed in the early months of Sandinsta rule.^[72] The Heritage Foundation is one of the most prominent conservative think tanks in the United States. ... This article is about the institution. ...

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in a 1981 report found evidence for mass executions in the period following the revolution. It stated "In the Commission’s view, while the government of Nicaragua clearly intended to respect the lives of all those defeated in the civil war. During the weeks immediately subsequent to the Revolutionary triumph, when the government was not in effective control, illegal executions took place which violated the right to life, and these acts have not been investigated and the persons responsible have not been punished."^[73] The IACHR also stated that: "The Commission is of the view that the new regime did not have, and does not now have, a policy of violating the right to life of political enemies, including among the latter the former guardsmen of the Government of General Somoza, whom a large sector of the population of Nicaragua held responsible for serious human rights violations during the former regime; proof of the foregoing is the abolition of the death penalty and the high number of former guardsmen who were prisoners and brought to trial for crimes that constituted violations of human rights." ^[74] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in Spanish, CIDH) is one of the two bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. ...

A 1983 report from the same source documented allegations of human rights violations against the Miskito Indians, which were alleged to have taken place after opposition forces (the Contras) infiltrated a Miskito village in order to launch attacks against government soldiers, and as part of a subsequent forced relocation program. Allegations included arbitrary imprisonment without trial, "disappearances" of such prisoners, forced relocations, and destruction of property.^[75] For other uses, see Contra. ... Disappear redirects here. ...

The 1991 annual report by the same organization, "In September 1990, the Commission was informed of the discovery of common graves in Nicaragua, especially in areas where fighting had occurred. The information was provided by the Nicaraguan Pro Human Rights Association, which had received its first complaint in June 1990. By December 1991, that Association had received reports of 60 common graves and had investigated 15 of them. While most of the graves seem to be the result of summary executions by members of the Sandinista People's Army or the State Security, some contain the bodies of individuals executed by the Nicaraguan Resistance."[16]

The 1992 annual report by the same organization contains details of mass graves and investigations which suggest that mass executions had been carried out. One such grave contained 75 corpses of peasants who were believed to have been executed in 1984 by government security forces pretending to be members of the contras. Another grave was also found in the town of Quininowas which contained six corpses, believed to be an entire family killed by government forces when the town was invaded. A further 72 graves were reported as being found, containing bodies of people, the majority of whom were believed to have been executed by agents of the state and some also by the contras.[17]

R. J. Rummel in his 1997 book Statistics of Democide lists many sources and estimates regarding how many were killed during the Sandinista government. Rummel's own estimate, based on those sources, is that the Sandinistas were responsible for 5,000 non-battle related deaths.^[76] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

A 2004 article in the Washington-based peer-reviewed academic journal Demokratizatsiya describes many human rights violations, both during and after their period in power, like that Sandinista security forces assassinated more than two hundred resistance commanders who had accepted the terms of the United Nations-brokered peace accords and had laid down their arms to join the democratic process.^[77] Peer review (known as refereeing in some academic fields) is a scholarly process used in the publication of manuscripts and in the awarding of funding for research. ... Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization is an international interdisciplinary quarterly journal devoted to changes in the late Soviet Union and post-Soviet states, issued by Heldref Publications in Washington, DC. It covers the processes in these countries since 1985. ...

Politicization of human rights

The issue of human rights also became highly politicised at this time as human rights is claimed to be a key component of propaganda created by the Sandinistas and the Reagan administration to help legitimise its policies in the region. The Inter-Church Committee on Human Rights in Latin America (ICCHRLA) in its Newsletter stated in 1985 that: "The hostility with which the Nicaraguan government is viewed by the Reagan administration is an unfortunate development. Even more unfortunate is the expression of that hostility in the destabilization campaign developed by the US administration... An important aspect of this campaign is misinformation and frequent allegations of serious human rights violations by the Nicaraguan authorities."^[78] Among the accusations in the Heritage Foundation report and the Demokratizatsiya article are references to alleged policies of religious persecution, particularly anti-semitism. The ICCHRLA in its newsletter stated that: "From time to time the current U.S. administration, and private organizations sympathetic to it, have made serious and extensive allegations of religious persecution in Nicaragua. Colleague churches in the United States undertook onsite investigation of these charges in 1984. In their report, the delegation organized by the Division of Overseas Ministries of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States concluded that there is 'no basis for the charge of systematic religious persecution'. The delegation 'considers this issue to be a device being used to justify aggressive opposition to the present Nicaraguan government.'"^[79] On the other hand, some elements of the Catholic Church in Nicaragua, among them Archbishop Miguel Obando y Bravo, strongly criticized the Sandinistas. The Archbishop stated "The government wants a church that is aligned with the Marxist-Leninist regime."[18] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights states that: "Although it is true that much of the friction between the Government and the churches arises from positions that are directly or indirectly linked to the political situation of the country, it is also true that statements by high government officials, official press statements, and the actions of groups under the control of the Government have gone beyond the limits within which political discussions should take place and have become obstacles to certain specifically religious activities."[19] The Heritage Foundation is one of the most prominent conservative think tanks in the United States. ... This article or section seems not to be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... Miguel Cardinal Obando y Bravo (born February 2, 1926) was the Archbishop of Managua from 1985 until his resignation on March 12, 2005. ... The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in Spanish, CIDH) is one of the two bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. ...

Human Rights Watch also stated in its 1989 report on Nicaragua that: "Under the Reagan administration, U.S. policy toward Nicaragua's Sandinista government was marked by constant hostility. This hostility yielded, among other things, an inordinate amount of publicity about human rights issues. Almost invariably, U.S. pronouncements on human rights exaggerated and distorted the real human rights violations of the Sandinista regime, and exculpated those of the U.S.-supported insurgents, known as the contras."^[80] Human Rights Watch Banner Human Rights Watch is a United States-based international non-government organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. ...

In 1987 a report was published by the UK based NGO Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR, now known as "Progressio"), a human rights organization which identifies itself with Liberation theology. The Progressio website states: "Throughout its history, the organisation has sought to influence church and state, most notably to support liberation struggles, grassroots developments and to strengthen a moral voice against human rights abuses. ... CIIR's then education department supported the progressive elements of the church in various liberation and human rights struggles in Central America, southern Africa and Asia. CIIR published booklets on liberation theology and promoted progressive church speakers."[20] The report, "Right to Survive - Human Rights in Nicaragua",^[81] discussed the politicisation of the human rights issue: "The Reagan administration, with scant regard for the truth, has made a concerted effort to paint as evil a picture as possible of Nicaragua, describing it as a 'totalitarian dungeon'. Supporters of the Sandinistas ... have argued that Nicaragua has a good record of human rights compared with other Central American countries and have compared Nicaragua with other countries at war." The CIIR report refers to estimates made by the NGO Americas Watch which count the number of non-battle related deaths and disappearances for which the government was responsible up to the year 1986 as "close to 300". According to the CIIR report, Amnesty International and Americas Watch stated that there is no evidence that the use of torture was sanctioned by the Nicaraguan authorities, although prisoners reported the use of conditions of detention and interrogation techniques that could be described as psychological torture. The Red Cross made repeated requests to be given access to prisoners held in state security detention centers, but were refused. The CIIR was critical of the Permanent Commission on Human Rights (PCHR or CPDH in Spanish), claiming that the organisation had a tendency to immediately publish accusations against the government without first establishing a factual basis for the allegations. The CIIR report also questioned the independence of the Permanent Commission on Human Rights, referring to an article in the Washington Post which claims that the National Endowment for Democracy, an organization funded by the US government, allocated a concession of US$50,000 for assistance in the translation and distribution outside Nicaragua of its monthly report, and that these funds were administrated by Prodemca, a US-based organization which later published full-page adverisments in the Washington Post and New York Times supporting military aid to the Contras. The Permanent Commission denies that it received any money which it claims was instead used by others for translating and distributing their monthly reports in other nations.[21] Progressio, formerly known as The Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR) is an international development charity working for justice and the eradication of poverty. ... Liberation theology is a school of theology within the Catholic Church that focuses on Jesus Christ as not only the Redeemer but also the Liberator of the oppressed. ... Progressio, formerly known as The Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR) is an international development charity working for justice and the eradication of poverty. ... Liberation theology is a school of theology within the Catholic Church that focuses on Jesus Christ as not only the Redeemer but also the Liberator of the oppressed. ... Human Rights Watch Logo Human Rights Watch is a United States-based international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. ... ... The National Endowment for Democracy, or NED, is a U.S. non-profit organization that was founded in 1983, to promote democracy by providing cash grants funded primarily through an annual allocation from the U.S. Congress. ... PRODEMCA, aka Friends of the Democratic Center in Central America, was founded to support incipient democratic processes in Central America. ... ... The New York Times is an internationally known daily newspaper published in New York City and distributed in the United States and many other nations worldwide. ...

The Nicaraguan based magazine Revista Envio, which describes its stance as one of "critical support for the Sandinistas", refers to the report: "The CPDH: Can It Be Trusted?" written by Scottish lawyer Paul Laverty. In the report, Laverty observes that: "The entire board of directors [of the Permanent Commission], are members of or closely identify with the 'Nicaraguan Democratic Coordinating Committee' (Coordinadora), an alliance of the more rightwing parties and COSEP, the business organization." He goes on to express concern about CPDH's alleged tendency to provide relatively few names and other details in connection with alleged violations. "According to the 11 monthly bulletins of 1987 (July being the only month without an issue), the CPDH claims to have received information on 1,236 abuses of all types. However, of those cases, only 144 names are provided. The majority of those 144 cases give dates and places of alleged incidents, but not all. This means that only in 11.65% of its cases is there the minimal detail provided to identify the person, place, date, incident and perpetrator of the abuse."^[82]

On the other hand, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights states: "During its on-site observation in 1978 under the Government of General Somoza, the Permanent Commission on Human Rights in Nicaragua, (CPDH) gave the Commission notable assistance, which certainly helped it to prepare its report promptly and correctly." and in 1980 "It cannot be denied that the CPDH continues to play an important role in the protection of human rights, and that a good number of people who consider that their human rights have been ignored by the Government are constantly coming to it."[22] The IACHR also continued to meet with representatives of the Permanent Commission and report their assessments in later years.[23][24] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in Spanish, CIDH) is one of the two bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights. ...

The Heritage Foundation stated that: "While elements of the Somoza National Guard tortured political opponents, they did not employ psychological torture."^[83] The International Commission of Jurists stated that under the Somoza regime cruel physical torture was regularly used in the interrogation of political prisoners.^[84] The Heritage Foundation is one of the most prominent conservative think tanks in the United States. ... The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) is an international human rights non-government organisation. ...

US government allegations of support for foreign rebels

The United States State Department accused the Sandinistas of many cases of illegal foreign intervention.^[85] The United States Department of State, often referred to as the State Department, is the Cabinet-level foreign affairs agency of the United States government, equivalent to foreign ministries in other countries. ...

One was supporting the FMLN rebels in El Salvador with safehaven; training; command-and-control headquarters and advice; and weapons, ammunition, and other vital supplies. As evidence was cited captured documents, testimonials of former rebels and Sandinistas, aerial photographs, tracing captured weapons back to Nicaragua, and captured vehicles from Nicaragua smuggling weapons.^[85] However El Salvador was in the midst of a Civil War in the period in question and that the US was intervening at the behest of El Salvador against the FMLN guerrillas. Shafik Handal Revolution or Death, We will win! El Salvador in struggle. ...

There were also accusations of subversive activities in Honduras, Costa Rica, and Colombia and in the case of Honduras and Costa Rica outright military operations by Nicaraguan troops.^[85]

Alleged Relationship with East Block Intelligence Agencies

Pre-Revolution

According to Cambridge University historian Christopher Andrew, who undertook the task of processing the Mitrokhin Archive, Carlos Fonseca Amador, one of the original three founding members of the FSLN had been recruited by the KGB in 1959 while on a trip to Moscow. This was one part of Aleksandr Shelepin’s 'grand strategy' of using national liberation movements as a spearhead of the Soviet Union’s foreign policy in the Third World, and in 1960 the KGB organized funding and training for twelve individuals that Fonseca handpicked. These individuals were to be the core of the new Sandinista organization. In the following several years, the FSLN tried with little success to organize guerrilla warfare against the government of Luis Somoza Debayle. After several failed attempts to attack government strongholds and little initial support from the local population, the National Guard nearly annihilated the Sandinistas in a series of attacks in 1963. Disappointed with the performance of Shelepin’s new Latin American “revolutionary vanguard”, the KGB reconstituted its core of the Sandinista leadership into the ISKRA group and used them for other activities in Latin America. The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University), located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and has a reputation as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. ... This article is about the occupation of studying history. ... Christopher Maurice Andrew (born 23 July 1941) is a British historian and professor with a special interest in international relations and in particular the history of intelligence services. ... The KGB sword and shield emblem appears on the covers of the three published works by Mitrokhin, co-author Christopher Andrew. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... Alexander Nikolayevich Shelepin (Russian: Александр Николаевич Шелепин, born 1918) was the head of KGB from December 25, 1958 to November 13, 1961. ... For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). ... Guerrilla redirects here. ... Luis Somoza Debayle (1922â€“1967) was the acting president and later dictator and president of Nicaragua 1956â€“1963 following the 1956 assassination of his father, Anastasio Somoza GarcÃa. ...

According to Andrew, Mitrokhin says during the following three years the KGB handpicked several dozen Sandinistas for intelligence and sabotage operations in the United States. Andrew and Mitrokhin say that in 1966, this KGB-controlled Sandinista sabotage and intelligence group was sent to northern Mexico near the U.S. border to conduct surveillance for possible sabotage. ^[86] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For other uses, see Sabotage (disambiguation). ...

Cooperation with foreign intelligence agencies during the 1980s

Other researchers have documented the contribution made from other Warsaw Pact Intelligence agencies to the fledgling Sandinista government including the East Germany secret police, the Stasi, by using recently declassified documents from Berlin^[87] as well as from former Stasi spymaster Markus Wolf who described the Stasi’s orchestration of the creation of a secret police force modeled after East Germany’s^[88] This article is about the state which existed from 1949 to 1990. ... Logo of East Germanys Ministerium fÃ¼r Staatssicherheit (MfS or Stasi) / Ministry for State Security This article is about Stasi, the secret police of East Germany. ... Markus Wolf. ... This article is about secret police as organizations. ...

Opposition (1990 - 2006)

In 1987, due to a stalemate with the Contras, the Esquipulas II treaty was brokered by Costa Rican President Óscar Arias Sánchez. The treaty's provisions included a call for a cease-fire, freedom of expression, and national elections. After the February 26, 1990 elections, the Sandinistas lost and peacefully passed power to the National Opposition Union (UNO), an alliance of 14 opposition parties ranging from the conservative business organization COSEP to Nicaraguan communists. UNO's candidate, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, replaced Daniel Ortega as president of Nicaragua. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Dr. Ã“scar Rafael de JesÃºs Arias SÃ¡nchez (born 13 September 1941, in Heredia) was the President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar). ... National Opposition Union(UniÃ³n Nacional Opositora--UNO) was a wide-range cartel of opposition parties formed to contest Nicaraguas president Daniel Ortega in 1990 election. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (born October 18, 1929) is a Nicaraguan political leader, publisher and former President of Nicaragua. ...

Reasons for the Sandinista loss in 1990 are disputed. Defenders of the defeated government assert that Nicaraguans voted for the opposition due to the continuing U.S. economic embargo and potential Contra threat. Opponents claim that Contra warfare had largely died down, and that the Sandinistas had grown increasingly unpopular, particularly due to forced conscription and crackdowns on political freedoms. An important reason, regardless of perspective, was that after a decade of the U.S. backed war and embargo, Nicaragua's economy and infrastructure were badly damaged and the United States promised aid only if the Sandinistas lost.^{[citation needed]} The U.S. also helped keep the rightist factions united so there would not be two strong rightist candidates.

At the personal level, most Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas to end a bloody war and food shortages.^{[citation needed]}

After their loss, most of the Sandinista leaders held most of the private property and businesses that had been confiscated and nationalized by the FSLN government. This process became known as the piñata and was tolerated by the new Chamorro government. Ortega also claimed to "rule from below" through groups he controls such as labor unions and student groups. Prominent Sandinistas also created a number of nongovernmental organizations to promote their ideas and social goals.^{[citation needed]}

Daniel Ortega remained the head of the FSLN, but his brother Humberto resigned from the party and remained at the head of the Sandinista Army, becoming a close confidante and supporter of Chamorro. The party also experienced a number of internal divisions, with prominent Sandinistas such as Ernesto Cardenal and Sergio Ramírez resigning to protest what they described as heavy-handed domination of the party by Daniel Ortega. Ramírez also founded a separate political party, the Sandinista Renovation Movement (MRS); his faction came to be known as the renovistas, who favor a more social democratic approach than the orthodoxos, or hardliners. In the 1996 Nicaraguan election, Ortega and Ramírez both campaigned unsuccessfully as presidential candidates on behalf of their respective parties, with Ortega receiving 43% of the vote while Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party received 51%. The Sandinistas won second place in the congressional elections, with 36 of 93 seats. Ernesto Cardenal MartÃnez (born January 20, 1925) is a Catholic priest and was one of the most famous liberation theologians of the Nicaraguan Revolution. ... Sergio RamÃrez Mercado (b. ... The MRS flag The Sandinista Renovation Movement (Movimiento de RenovaciÃ³n Sandinista or MRS, in spanish) is a Nicaraguan political party founded by dissidents of the Sandinista National Liberation Front on May 18, 1995, on Augusto CÃ©sar Sandinos 100th anniversary. ... Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. ... JosÃ© Arnoldo AlemÃ¡n Lacayo was President of Nicaragua from 1997 to 2002. ...

Daniel Ortega was re-elected as leader of the FSLN in 1998. Municipal elections in November 2000 saw a strong Sandinista vote, especially in urban areas, and former Tourism Minister Herty Lewites was elected mayor of Managua. This significant result led to expectations of a close race in the presidential elections scheduled for November 2001. Daniel Ortega and Enrique Bolaños of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC) ran neck-and-neck in the polls for much of the campaign, but in the end the PLC won a clear victory. The results of these elections were that the FSLN won 42.6% of the vote for parliament (versus 52.6% for the PLC), giving them 41 out of the 92 seats in the National Assembly (versus 48 for the PLC). In the presidential race, Ortega lost to Bolaños 46.3% to 53.6%. Herty Lewites Herty Lewites RodrÃguez (born December 24, 1939) is a Nicaraguan politician. ... Enrique JosÃ© BolaÃ±os Geyer (born 13 May 1928) was the President of Nicaragua from 2002 to 2007. ... This article is part of or related to the Liberalism series Categories: Politics stubs | Liberal related stubs | Nicaraguan political parties | Liberal parties ... General elections were held in Nicaragua to elect a president and parliament on 4 November 2001. ...

Daniel Ortega was once again re-elected as leader of the FSLN in March 2002 and re-elected as president of Nicaragua in November 2006.

2006, back in government

In 2006, Daniel Ortega was elected president with a lead of 9 points over his nearest opponent (see Nicaraguan general election, 2006). This occurred despite the fact that the breakaway Sandinista Renovation Movement continued to oppose the FSLN, running former Sandinista Herty Lewites as its candidate for president. However, Lewites died just several month before the elections. JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... Nicaragua will hold a general election on 5 November 2006. ... The MRS flag The Sandinista Renovation Movement (Movimiento de RenovaciÃ³n Sandinista or MRS, in spanish) is a Nicaraguan political party founded by dissidents of the Sandinista National Liberation Front on May 18, 1995, on Augusto CÃ©sar Sandinos 100th anniversary. ... Herty Lewites Herty Lewites RodrÃguez (born December 24, 1939) is a Nicaraguan politician. ...

The FSLN also won 38 seats in the congressional elections becoming the largest party, a loss of 5 seats compared to the 2001 elections. The split in the Constitutionalist Liberal Party helped to allow the FSLN to become the largest party in Congress, however it should be noted that the Sandinista vote was also split between the FSLN and MRS.

"Zero Hunger project"

The "Zero Hunger Program," which aims to reduce poverty in the rural areas over a five year period, was inaugurated by President Daniel Ortega and other members of his administration in the northern department of Jinotega. The program was designed to achieve the first objective of the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals, "to eradicate extreme poverty and reduce hunger to zero."

"Zero Hunger" with its budget of US$150 million plans to deliver a US$2,000 bond or voucher to 75,000 rural families between 2007 and 2012. The voucher will consist of the delivery of a pregnant cow and a pregnant sow, five chickens and a rooster, seeds, fruit- bearing plants and plants for reforestation.^[89] The project's short-term objective is to have each rural family capable of producing enough milk, meat, eggs, fruits, vegetables and cereals to cover its basic needs while its medium range objective is to establish local markets and export certain products.

The families that benefit from the project will be required to pay back 20 percent of the amount that they receive in order to create a rural fund that will guarantee the continuity of the program. NGOs and representatives from each community will be in charge of managing the project.

Symbols

The flag of the FSLN consists of an upper half in red, a lower half in black, and the letters F S L N in white. It is a modified version of the flag Sandino used in the 1930s, during the war against the U.S. occupation of Nicaragua which consisted of two vertical stripes, equally in size, one red and the other black with a skull (like the traditional Jolly Roger flag). These colors came from the Mexican anarchist movements that Sandino got involved with during his stay in Mexico in the early 1920s.[25] Image File history File links Sandinoflagusmc. ... Image File history File links Sandinoflagusmc. ... United States Marine Corps Emblem The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is the second smallest of the five branches of the United States armed forces, with 170,000 active and 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2002. ... Augusto CÃ©sar Sandino Augusto NicolÃ¡s CalderÃ³n Sandino (May 18, 1895 â€“ February 21, 1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military presence in Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. ... Sandino (centre) en route to Mexico. ... The United States occupied Nicaragua from 1909-1933 and intervened in the country several times before that. ... Wingdings version of the Jolly Roger (character N). Many pirates created their own individualized versions. ... Anarchism is a generic term describing various political philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of hierarchy and imposed authority. ...

In recent times, there has been a dispute between the FSLN and the dissident Sandinista Renovation Movement (MRS) about the use of the red and black flag in public activities. Despite the fact that the MRS has its own flag (orange with a silhouette of Sandino's hat in black), they also use the red and black flag in honor of Sandino's legacy. They state that the red and black flag is a symbol of Sandinismo as a whole, not only of the FSLN party. The MRS flag The Sandinista Renovation Movement (Movimiento de RenovaciÃ³n Sandinista or MRS, in spanish) is a Nicaraguan political party founded by dissidents of the Sandinista National Liberation Front on May 18, 1995, on Augusto CÃ©sar Sandinos 100th anniversary. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sandinista Ideologies. ...

Popular culture

Since the conflict with Nicaragua in the 1980s', variations of the term "Sandinista" are now sometimes used in the United States to refer to fanatical supporters of a certain cause. In the Spanish language, the suffix "-ista" is used to indicate a predilection towards the root. (It is the equivalent of "-ist" in English, as in "idealist," "Calvinist" or "communist.") For example "fashionistas" for those excessively obsessed with fashion. Also, Bill and Hillary Clinton supporters, or people in the Clintons' political circle, are sometimes referred to as "Clintonistas" by their opponents. Another example would be "Somocistas", supporters of former dictator Anastasio Somoza. For other uses, see Fashion (disambiguation). ...

As a show of support for the movement and as a reaction to an anti-Sandinista statement by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, punk rock group The Clash used the title Sandinista! for their 1980 triple album. The album contains the song "Washington Bullets" which references the Sandinistas and other events and groups involved in Latin American history, starting from 1959. Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (nÃ©e Roberts; born 13 October 1925) served as British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 until 1990, being the first and only woman to hold either post. ... This article is about the English rock band. ... Sandinista! is the fourth album by the punk rock band The Clash. ... Washington Bullets is a song from The Clashs 1980 album Sandinista!. A politically charged song, it is a simplified version of Latin American history from the 1959 Cuban Revolution to the Nicaraguan Sandinistas of the 1980s, with mention of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the Dalai Lama. ...

In 2007, the popular Puerto Rican Reggaeton/Rap band Calle 13 mentioned the Sandinista movement in their song "Llegale a mi guarida". The lyrics claimed: "Respeto a Nicaragua y a la lucha sandinista" ("I respect Nicaragua and the Sandinista struggle"). Calle 13 is a Spanish cable/satellite channel. ...

In an episode of The Golden Girls, Dorothy, Rose, and Blanche help untie Sophia, who has been tied up to a chair by a recently released convict. When Dorothy asks Sophia who did this to her, Sophia sarcastically replies "The Sandinistas!" For the Hong Kong film, see The Golden Girls (1995 film). ...

Prominent Sandinistas

ArgÃ¼ello in an undated photo The only hijacker killed in the Dawsons Field hijackings of 1970, Patrick ArgÃ¼ello had the distinction of being a Nicaraguan fighting alongside the Palestinian PFLP. // Youth Patrick was born in March 1943 to a Nicaraguan father and an American mother. ... Main article: Black September in Jordan The Dawsons Field hijacking occurred on September 6, 1970. ... Nora Astorga (1949â€”February 14, 1988) was a guerrilla fighter in the Nicaraguan Revolution of 1979, a lawyer, politician, judge and the Nicaraguan ambassador to the United Nations from 1986 to 1988. ... Gioconda Belli Gioconda Belli (born 1948 in Managua) is a Nicaraguan author, poet and novelist. ... TomÃ¡s Borge MartÃnez (born August 13, 1930) (in American newspapers often spelt as Thomas Borge) - the last living co-founder of the Sandinista movement in Nicaragua, he was a Interior Minister of Nicaragua under the rule of Daniel Ortega. ... Peoples war (also called protracted peoples war) is a military-political strategy invented by Mao Zedong. ... Omar Cabezas Lacayo (born 1950 in LeÃ³n, Nicaragua) is a Nicaraguan author, revolutionary and politician. ... Ernesto Cardenal MartÃnez (born January 20, 1925) is a Catholic priest and was one of the most famous liberation theologians of the Nicaraguan Revolution. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu), commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Roman Catholic religious order. ... The traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write, or the ability to use language to read, write, listen, and speak. ... Rigoberto Cruz a. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Miguel dEscoto Brockman (born 5 February 1933) was the foreign minister of Nicaragua when the country was ruled by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (1979-1990). ... Maryknoll [1] or, the Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America, is an American Catholic Society of Apostolic Life which has, throughout its nearly hundred-year history, had an exclusive emphasis on ministry and missionary work overseas, particularly East Asia, in China, Japan, Korea, Latin America, and Africa. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Carlos Fonseca Amador (born June 23, 1936 - died November 7, 1976), a revolutionary, teacher and a founder of the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional ( FSLN, Sandinista National Liberation Front), was assassinated by the Guardia Nacional three years before the FSLN took power in Nicaragua. ... Herty Lewites Herty Lewites RodrÃguez (born December 24, 1939) is a Nicaraguan politician. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... General Humberto Ortega Saavedra is a Nicaraguan military leader and leading Latin American revolutionary strategist. ... EdÃ©n Pastora GÃ³mez (born January 22, 1937?) was the leader of the ADREN; the largest contra army in southern Nicaragua in the 1980s. ... Sergio Ramírez Mercado (b. ... Arlen Siu, martyr of the Sandinista revolution. ... Dora MarÃa TÃ©llez (born 1947) is a Nicaraguan historian most famous as an icon of the Sandinista Revolution which deposed the Somoza regime. ...

See also

The Iran-Contra Affair was a political scandal occurring in 1987 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration in which members of the executive branch sold weapons to Iran, an avowed enemy, and illegally used the profits to continue funding anti-Communist rebels, the Contras, in Nicaragua. ... The Republic of Nicaragua vs. ... Nicaraguan Sign Language (or ISN, Idioma de SeÃ±as de Nicaragua or Idioma de Signos NicaragÃ¼ense) is a signed language spontaneously developed by deaf children in a number of schools in western Nicaragua in the 1970s and 1980s. ... Carlos Mejia Godoy (June 27, 1943 - ) is a Nicaraguan musician, composer and singer. ... // Books Non fiction Sandinista: Carlos Fonseca and the Nicaraguan Revolution, Matilde Zimmermann, Duke University Press, 2001, Nicaragua,Thomas W. Walker, Westview Press, 2003 Fiction Films Walker A film about William Walker, a 19th century soldier of fortune and ruler of Nicaragua. ...

References

Notes

^ The Cuban revolution and its extension: Resolution of the Socialist Workers Party. Page 74
^ States, Ideologies, and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of Iran, Nicaragua, and the Philippines by Misargh Parsa for Cambridge University Press. Page 224.
^ "On This Day" 5 November 984, BBC. "The unofficial British election observer, Lord Chitnis, said proceedings were not perfect but he had no doubt the elections were fair." Accessed online 9 October 2006.
[http://www.country-studies.com/nicaragua/inst the opposition considered these elections flawed. Accessed online 9 October 2006.
^ Library of Congress Country Studies: Nicaragua - The rise of the FSLN
^ http://www.fsln-nicaragua.com/heroes/index.html
^ American Sociological AssociationPDF (334 KiB): Resurrection and Reappropriation: Political Uses of Historical Figures in Comparative Perspective
^ ^a ^b Davies Jr., Thomas M. M. (January 2002). Guerrilla Warfare. SR Books, p. 359. ISBN 0-84202678-9.
^ BBC News: 1972: Earthquake wreaks devastation in Nicaragua
^ Walker, Thomas (January 2003). Nicaragua, 4th edition (in English), Cambridge, MA: Westview Press, p. 31. ISBN 0-8133-3882-4.
^ The Somoza Dynasty. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved on 2 September, 2006.
^ Library of Congress Country Studies: Nicaragua - The Somoza Era, 1936-74
^ Encyclopedia of World Biography on Daniel Ortega, 2005-2006
^ Lopez, George A. (December 1987). Liberalization and Redemocratization in Latin America. Greenwood Press, 63. ISBN 0-31325299-8.
^ Lafeber, Walter (January 1993). Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. W. W. Norton & Company, 229.
^ Lafeber, Walter (January 1993). Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. W. W. Norton & Company, 229.
^ Truman State University: Pre-Revolutionary Nicaragua
^ United States Air Force - Maxwell-Gunter AFB - Air & Space Power Journal: From FOCO to Insurrection: Sandinista Strategies of Revolution
^ Wheelock Roman, Jaime (1975). Imperialismo y Dictadura: crisis de una formación social (in Spanish). Mexico: Siglo XXI Editores. ISBN 968-23-0105-X.
^ Ortega Saavedra, Humberto (1979). Cincuenta Años de Lucha Sandinista (in Spanish). Mexico: Editorial Diogenes.
^ National Directorate of the FSLN: General Political-Military Platform of Struggle, 1977
^ Library of Congress Country Studies: The End of the Anastasio Somoza Debayle Era
^ Santa Clara University: An Observer Case Study: Economic Sanctions and Ethics
^ Encyclopædia Britannica: Guide to Hispanic Heritage
^ ^a ^b Truman State University: Revolutionary Nicaragua
^ Pastor, Robert A. (September 1987). Condemned to Repetition. The United States and Nicaragua (in English). United States of America: Princeton Univ Press. ISBN 0-691-07752-5.
^ Borge, Tomás (1982). Sandinistas Speak (in English). New York: Pathfinder Press, 59. ISBN 0-87348-619-6.
^ Library of Congress Country Studies: Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution
^ Andrew, Christopher (September 2000). The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Basic Books, 385.
^ "Embargo Politics", The Multinational Monitor. Retrieved on 2007-02-15.
^ Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino by Thomas W. Walker. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. 1981
^ International Court Of Justice (January 2000). Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V. United States of America). United Nations Press, 512. ISBN 9-21070826-1.
^ Brown, Timothy C. (October 2000). When the Ak-47s Fall Silent: Revolutionaries, Guerrillas, and the Dangers of Peace. Hoover Institute Press, 162. ISBN 0-81799842-X.
^ Prevost, Gary (1993). Democracy and Socialism in Sandinista Nicaragua. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 153. ISBN 1-55587227-1.
^ Chomorro Cardenal, Jaime (1988). La Prensa, The Republic of Paper. University Freedom House, p. 20.
^ Behind the State of Emergency. Envío (November 1985). Retrieved on 2008-02-16.
^ Chamorro Cardenal, Jaime (1988). La Prensa, A Republic of Paper. Freedom House, 23.
^ Chomorro Cardenal, Jaime (1988). La Prensa, The Republic of Paper. University Freedom House, p. 20.
^ Anderson, Leslie E. (May 2005). Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990-2001. University Of Chicago Press, 64. ISBN 0-22601971-3.
^ Anderson, Leslie E. (May 2005). Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990-2001. University Of Chicago Press, 64. ISBN 0-22601971-3.
^ (December 1984) "La Necesidad de un Nuevo Modelo de Comunicación en Nicaragua". University Revista de la Escuela de Perdiodismo.
^ Anderson, Leslie E. (May 2005). Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990-2001. University Of Chicago Press, 65. ISBN 0-22601971-3.
^ 1984: Sandinistas claim election victory. On This Day – 5 November. BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-02-16.
^ Mileti, Dennis (May 1999). Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States. Joseph Henry Press, 465. ISBN 0-30906360-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Country Studies: Nicaragua:The Sandinista Years. Library of Congress.
^ Brown, Timothy C. (February 2001). The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma. ISBN 0-80613252-3.
^ Christian Smith, Resisting Reagan: The US Central America Peace Movement, University of Chicago Press, 1996
^ Noam Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, Vintage, 1992
^ Rita Beamish, ‘Bush Will Lift Trade Embargo if Nicaraguan Opposition Candidate Wins’, Associated Press, 8 November 1989
^ Castro, Vanessa (September 1992). The 1990 Elections in Nicaragua and Their Aftermath. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 31.
^ Country Studies: Nicaragua:Chapter 3:The Sandinista Era, 1979-90. Library of Congress.
^ Country Studies: Nicaragua:Chapter 3:The Sandinista Era, 1979-90. Library of Congress.
^ Country Studies: Nicaragua:Chapter 3:The Sandinista Era, 1979-90. Library of Congress.
^ Country Studies: Nicaragua:Chapter 3:The Sandinista Era, 1979-90. Library of Congress.
^ Country Studies: Nicaragua:Chapter 3:The Sandinista Era, 1979-90. Library of Congress.
^ Torres, Luz Marina. "Women in Nicaragua: The Revolution on Hold", Revista Envío, June 1991. Retrieved on 2008-02-22.
^ Giriazzo, Alicia. "Ten Years After: Women in Sandinista Nicaragua", Epica. Retrieved on 2008-02-22.
^ Fernandez Poncela, Anna M.; Bill Steiger (1996). "The Disruptions of Adjustment: Women in Nicaragua". Latin American Perspectives 23 (1): 49-66. Retrieved on 2008-02-22.
^ [1]
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ [4]
^ "Nicaragua: Growth of Opposition, 1981-83", Ciao Atlas. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.
^ Truver, Scott C.. "Mines and Underwater IEDs in U.S. Ports and Waterways...", pp. 4. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.
^ "US Policy: Economic Embargo: The War Goes On", Envío, Central American University - UCA. Retrieved on 2007-08-21.
^ Baker, Dean. The United States since 1980 (The World Since 1980). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 101. ISBN 0-521-86017-2.
^ Restored version of the original "Dark Alliance" web page, San Jose Mercury News, now hosted by narconews.com
^ Chamorro Cardenal, Jaime (1988). La Prensa, A Republic of Paper. Freedom House, 23.
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Repulic of Nicaragua (1981), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Repulic of Nicaragua (1981), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.]
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights of a Segment of the Nicaraguan Population of Miskito Origin (1983), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
^ New Regime, Old Methods (January 24, 1983), TIME.
^ Richard Araujo, The Sandinista War on Human RighsPDF (480 KiB) (July 19, 1983), Heritage Foundation.
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Repulic of Nicaragua (1981), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Repulic of Nicaragua (1981), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.]
^ Report on the Situation of Human Rights of a Segment of the Nicaraguan Population of Miskito Origin (1983), Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
^ R.J. Rummel, Statistics of Democide (1997) Table References
^ J. Michael Waller Tropical Chekists: The Sandinista secret police legacy in Nicaragua Summer 2004
^ Report on Nicaragua, Newsletter Numbers 1&2, 1985. Toronto: Inter-Church Committee on Human Rights in Latin America.
^ Report on Nicaragua, Newsletter Numbers 1&2, 1985. Toronto: Inter-Church Committee on Human Rights in Latin America.
^ [5]
^ Right to Survive - Human Rights in Nicaragua, (1987. London: CIIR
^ [6] Revista Envio: Human Rights: Opposition Rights Group Continues Attack
^ Richard Araujo, The Sandinista War on Human RighsPDF (480 KiB) (July 19, 1983), Heritage Foundation.
^ Nicaragua a Tortured Nation Historians Against War
^ ^a ^b ^c Vernon A. Walters (October 1986). Nicaragua's role in revolutionary internationalism - statement by Vernon A. Walters.
^ Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin (2000). The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West. Gardners Books. ISBN 0-14-028487-7.
^ Koehler, John (November 2000). Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police (in English). Basic Books.
^ Marcus Wolf, Anne McElvoy, (July 1999). Man Without A Face (in English). PublicAffairs.
^ "Nicaragua Gets to Roots of Hunger", Prensa Latina. Retrieved on 2007-05-15.

is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... â€œPDFâ€ redirects here. ... A kibibyte (a contraction of kilo binary byte) is a unit of information or computer storage, commonly abbreviated KiB (never kiB). 1 kibibyte = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes The kibibyte is closely related to the kilobyte, which can be used either as a synonym for kibibyte or to refer to... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... BBC News is the department within the BBC responsible for the corporations news-gathering and production of news programmes on BBC television, radio and online. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 53rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 53rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 53rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... â€œPDFâ€ redirects here. ... A kibibyte (a contraction of kilo binary byte) is a unit of information or computer storage, commonly abbreviated KiB (never kiB). 1 kibibyte = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes The kibibyte is closely related to the kilobyte, which can be used either as a synonym for kibibyte or to refer to... â€œPDFâ€ redirects here. ... A kibibyte (a contraction of kilo binary byte) is a unit of information or computer storage, commonly abbreviated KiB (never kiB). 1 kibibyte = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes The kibibyte is closely related to the kilobyte, which can be used either as a synonym for kibibyte or to refer to... Christopher Maurice Andrew (born 23 July 1941) is a British historian and professor with a special interest in international relations and in particular the history of intelligence services. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 135th day of the year (136th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

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Harold Pinter, CH, CBE (born 10 October 1930) is an English playwright, screenwriter, poet, actor, director, author, and political activist. ... Nobel Prize in Literature medal. ... Francisco Urcuyo MaliaÃ±os (1915â€“2001) was Acting President of Nicaragua for a single day in 1979, following the resignation of Anastasio Somoza Debayle on July 17. ... This article is about the President of Nicaragua, for the 2006 presidential election results see: Nicaraguan general election, 2006 History of Nicaragua Presidentes de Nicaragua Categories: | ... The Junta of National Reconstruction ruled Nicaragua between 1979 and 1984. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... Political parties in Nicaragua lists political parties in Nicaragua. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Nicaragua. ... This article is part of or related to the Liberalism series Categories: Politics stubs | Liberal related stubs | Nicaraguan political parties | Liberal parties ... The ALN flag The Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance (Spanish: Alianza Liberal NicaragÃ¼ense â€“ ALN) was started in 2005 by Eduardo Montealegre and other members of the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista â€“ PLC) who opposed former President of the country Arnoldo AlemÃ¡ns continued control of the PLC even after... The MRS flag The Sandinista Renovation Movement (Movimiento de RenovaciÃ³n Sandinista or MRS, in spanish) is a Nicaraguan political party founded by dissidents of the Sandinista National Liberation Front on May 18, 1995, on Augusto CÃ©sar Sandinos 100th anniversary. ... The Alliance for the Republic is new Nicaraguan political party: Last week, supporters of the Alliance for the Republic presented to the Supreme Electoral Council their request for legalization as a new political party which would run candidates in the municipal elections slated for November of this year. ... The Central American Unionist Party (Spanish: Partido Unionista Centroamericano - PUCA) is a center-right Nicaraguan political party founded in 1944. ... Communist Party of Nicaragua (in Spanish: Partido Comunista de Nicaragua), a communist political party in Nicaragua. ... Christian Unity Movement (Spanish: Movimiento de Unidad Cristiana - MUC), was founded by dissidents from the Nicaraguan Party of the Christian Path (CCN) in year 2000. ... The Conservative Party of Nicaragua (Partido Conservador de Nicaragua) is a political party in Nicaragua. ... The Independent Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Independiente - PLI) is a Nicaraguan right-wing political party separated from Somozas Nationalist Liberal Party (PLN) in 1944, and formed in 1947. ... The PLC flag The Constitutional Liberal Party (Spanish: Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC) is the governing political party of Nicaragua. ... Popular Action Movement - Marxist-Leninist (Spanish: Movimiento AcciÃ³n Popular - Marxista-Leninista) is a communist party in Nicaragua that surged out of a split from the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) in the early 1970s. ... The Nicaraguan Party of the Christian Path (Spanish: Camino Cristiano NicaragÃ¼ense - CCN) is a Nicaraguan political party founded in 1996 by the Assemblies of God pastor Guillermo Osorno. ... The Nicaraguan Resistance Party (Spanish: Partido Resistencia NicaragÃ¼ense - PRN) is a Nicaraguan political party founded in 1993 by the Contras, the armed opposition to the Sandinista government in the 80s. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Political parties Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box: This is an overview of political parties by country, in the form of a table with a link to a list of political parties in each country and showing which party system is dominant in each country . ... Nicaragua is a constitutional democracy with executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral branches of government. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... This article is about the military alliance. ... Member states of the Non-Aligned Movement (2005). ... Not to be confused with the Warsaw Convention, which is an agreement about airlines financial liability and the Treaty of Warsaw (1970) between West Germany and the Peoples Republic of Poland. ... The Big Three at the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. ... Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin meeting at the Potsdam Conference on July 18, 1945. ... Gouzenko wearing his white hood for anonymity Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919, Rogachev, Soviet Union â€“ June 28, 1982, Mississauga, Canada) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. ... This concerns the Soviet occupation of Iran, not the Iran hostage crisis. ... Belligerents Nationalist Party of China Communist Party of China Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong Strength 4,300,000 (July 1946) 3,650,000 (June 1948) 1,490,000 (June 1949) 1,200,000 (July 1946) 2,800,000 (June 1948) 4,000,000 (June 1949) The Chinese Civil War... Combatants Hellenic Army, Royalist forces, Republicans United Kingdom Communist Party of Greece (ELAS, DSE) Commanders Alexander Papagos, Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos, James Van Fleet Markos Vafiadis Strength 150,000 men 50,000 men and women Casualties 15,000 killed 32,000+ killed or captured The Greek Civil War (Î•Î»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏŒÏ‚ ÎµÎ¼Ï†ÏÎ»Î¹Î¿Ï‚ Ï€ÏŒÎ»ÎµÎ¼Î¿Ï‚ [ellinikos emfilios polemos]) was... Restatement of Policy on Germany is a famous speech by James F. Byrnes, then United States Secretary of State, held in Stuttgart on September 6, 1946. ... The Truman Doctrine was a proclamation by U.S. president Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947. ... Map of Cold-War era Europe and the Near East showing countries that received Marshall Plan aid. ... The Czechoslovak coup dÃ©tat of 1948 (often simply the Czech coup) (Czech: , meaning February 1948; in Communist historiography known as Victorious February (Czech: )) was an event late that February in which the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, with Soviet backing, assumed undisputed control over the government of Czechoslovakia, ushering in... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Informbiro. ... Occupation zones after 1945. ... Belligerents United Nations: Republic of Korea Australia Belgium Canada Colombia Ethiopia France Greece Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Philippines South Africa Thailand Turkey United Kingdom United States Medical staff: Denmark Italy Norway India Sweden Communist: Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Peoples Republic of China Soviet Union Commanders Syngman Rhee... Combatants French Union France State of Vietnam Cambodia Laos Viet Minh Commanders French Expeditionary Corps Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque (1945-46) Jean-Ã‰tienne Valluy (1946-8) Roger Blaizot (1948-9) Marcel-Maurice Carpentier (1949-50) Jean de Lattre de Tassigny (1950-51) Raoul Salan (1952-3) Henri Navarre (1953-4... In the 1953 Iranian coup dÃ©tat, the administration of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower orchestrated the overthrow of the democratically-elected administration of Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq and his cabinet from power. ... Former president Jacobo Arbenz GuzmÃ¡n on the cover of TIME magazine in June 1954 after his overthrow Operation PBSUCCESS was a CIA-organized covert operation that overthrew the democratically-elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz GuzmÃ¡n in 1954. ... Protesters marching through the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin The Uprising of 1953 in East Germany took place in June and July 1953. ... Taiwan Strait The First Taiwan Strait Crisis (also called the 1954-1955 Taiwan Strait Crisis or the 1955 Taiwan Strait Crisis) was a short armed conflict that took place between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) governments. ... Combatants Anti-communist labourers and other civilian protesters Communist LWP KBW and UB Commanders Unknown, probably none Gen. ... Combatants Soviet Union; ÃVH (Hungarian State Security Police) Ad hoc local Hungarian militias Commanders Ivan Konev Various independent militia leaders Strength 150,000 troops, 6,000 tanks Unknown number of militia and rebelling soldiers Casualties 722 killed, 1,251 wounded[1] 2,500 killed 13,000 wounded[2] The Hungarian... Combatants Israel United Kingdom France Egypt Commanders Moshe Dayan Charles Keightley Pierre Barjot Gamal Abdel Nasser Abdel Hakim Amer Strength 175,000 Israeli 45,000 British 34,000 French 70,000 Casualties 197 Israeli KIA 56 British KIA 91 British WIA 10 French KIA 43 French WIA 650 KIA[1... Sputnik 1 The Sputnik crisis was a turn point of the Cold War that began on October 4, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik 1 satellite. ... Taiwan Strait The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was a conflict that took place between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) governments in which the PRC was accused by Taiwan of shelling the islands of Matsu and... Belligerents 26th of July Movement Cuba Commanders Fidel Castro Che Guevara Raul Castro Fulgencio Batista The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of General Fulgencio Batistas regime on January 1, 1959 by the 26th of July Movement and other revolutionary elements within the country. ... Combatants Congo ONUC Cuba Belgium Katanga South Kasai CIA Commanders Patrice Lumumba Pierre Mulele Laurent-DÃ©sirÃ© Kabila Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi Che Guevara Moise Tshombe Joseph Mobutu Mike Hoare Charles Laurent Albert Kalonji Early history Migration & states Colonization Stanley (1867â€“1885) Congo Free State Leopold II (1885â€“1908) Belgian Congo... The Sino-Soviet split was a major diplomatic conflict between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), beginning in the late 1950s, reaching a peak in 1969 and continuing in various ways until the late 1980s. ... The Uâ€“2 Crisis of 1960 occurred when an American Uâ€“2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. ... Combatants Cubans trained by Soviet advisors Cuban exiles trained by United States Commanders Fidel Castro JosÃ© RamÃ³n FernÃ¡ndez Ernesto Che Guevara Francisco Ciutat de Miguel Grayston Lynch Pepe San Roman Erneido Oliva Strength 51,000 1,500 Casualties various estimates; over 1,600 dead[1] to 5,000... President Kennedy in a crowded Cabinet Room during the Cuban Missile Crisis. ... View in 1986 from the west side of graffiti art on the walls infamous death strip Walls poster in memory of the fall. ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam Peopleâ€™s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000... The Brazilian military coup of 1964 was a bloodless coup dÃ©tat held against left-wing President Joao Goulart by the Brazilian military on the night of 31 March 1964. ... Combatants United States (IAPF) Inter-American Peace Force (CEFA) Dominican Armed Forces Training Center (SIM) Dominican Military Intelligence Service Dominican Armed Forces Constitutionalists PRD irregulars Commanders Lyndon B. Johnson Gen. ... Combatants Republic of Angola, Republic of Cuba, SWAPO, USSR, East Germany, Republic of Zambia Republic of South Africa, UNITA Scope of operations Operational Area: The South African Border War The South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Africa (now... Indonesias Transition to the New Order occurred over 1965-67. ... ASEAN Declaration or Bangkok Declaration is the founding document of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). ... â€œSecret Warâ€ redirects here. ... The Greek military junta of 1967-1974, alternatively The Regime of the Colonels (Greek: ), or in Greece The Junta (Greek: ) and The Seven Years (Greek: ) are terms used to refer to a series of right-wing military governments that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974. ... People in a cafÃ© watch Soviet tanks roll past The Prague Spring (Czech: PraÅ¾skÃ© jaro, Slovak: PraÅ¾skÃ¡ jar, Russian: Ð¿Ñ€Ð°Ð¶ÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÐ½Ð°) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia starting January 5, 1968 when Alexander DubÄek came to power, and running until August 20 of that year when the... Goulash Communism (Hungarian: gulyÃ¡skommunizmus) is a term sometimes used to denote the variety of socialism as practised in the Hungarian Peoples Republic between 1962-63 and 1989. ... DÃ©tente is a French term, meaning a relaxing or easing; the term has been used in international politics since the early 1970s. ... Combatants Peopleâ€™s Republic of China Soviet Union Commanders Mao Tse-Tung Leonid Brezhnev Strength 814,000 658,000 Casualties 800 killed, 620 wounded, 1 lost [1] 58 killed, 94 wounded [2] The Sino-Soviet border conflict of 1969 was a series of armed clashes between the Soviet Union and... Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Opened for signature July 1, 1968 in New York Entered into force March 5, 1970 Conditions for entry into force Ratification by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and 40 other signatory states. ... Combatants Khmer Republic, United States, Republic of Vietnam Khmer Rouge, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF) Strength ~250,000 FANK troops ~100,000 (60,000) Khmer Rouge Casualties ~600,000 dead, 1,000,000+ wounded[1] The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted... Three-Time World Mens Singles Champion Zhuang Zedong (left) and U.S. team member Glenn Cowan (right) on the Chinese team bus in Nagoya, Japan, 1971. ... The Four Power Agreement on Berlin[1] was signed on 3 September 1971 by the foreign ministers of the four powers, United Kingdom, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, France, and the United States. ... Richard Nixon (right) meets with Mao Zedong in 1972. ... Prisoners outside the La Moneda Palace after their surrender during the coup (1973). ... Combatants Israel Egypt, Syria, Iraq Commanders Moshe Dayan, David Elazar, Ariel Sharon, Shmuel Gonen, Benjamin Peled, Israel Tal, Rehavam Zeevi, Aharon Yariv, Yitzhak Hofi, Rafael Eitan, Abraham Adan, Yanush Ben Gal Saad El Shazly, Ahmad Ismail Ali, Hosni Mubarak, Mohammed Aly Fahmy, Anwar Sadat, Abdel Ghani el-Gammasy, Abdul Munim... The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties refers to two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding international treaties between the Soviet Union and United States, the Cold War superpowers, on the issue of armament control. ... Combatants MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire Commanders JosÃ© Eduardo dos Santos Jonas Savimbi Casualties Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians The Angolan Civil War began when Angola won its war for independence in 1975 with the... The Mozambican Civil War started in Mozambique during the 1970s following independence in 1975. ... Combatants Ethiopia Cuba South Yemen Somalia WSLF Commanders Mengistu Haile Mariam Vasily Petrov[1][2] Siad Barre Strength 217,000 Ethiopians 1,500 Soviet advisors 15,000 Cubans 2,000 South Yemenis SNA 60,000 WSLF 15,000 Casualties Unknown 20,000 killed or wounded 1/2 of the Air... Combatants Peoples Republic of China Socialist Republic of Vietnam Commanders Yang Dezhi VÄƒn Tiáº¿n DÅ©ng Strength 300,000+[1] 100,000+ from regular army divisions and divisions of the Public Security Army Casualties Disputed. ... After Islamic Conquest Modern SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic Afghanistan Azerbaijan Bahrain Iran Iraq Tajikistan Uzbekistan This box: The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution,[1][2][3][4][5][6] Persian: Ø§Ù†Ù‚Ù„Ø§Ø¨ Ø§Ø³Ù„Ø§Ù…ÛŒ, EnghelÄbe EslÄmi) was the revolution that transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza... Belligerents DRA USSR Mujahideen of Afghanistan al-Qaeda supported by[1] United States United Kingdom Pakistan Saudi Arabia Commanders Soviet forces: Sergei Sokolov Valentin Varennikov Boris Gromov DRA: Babrak Karmal Mohammad Najibullah Abdul Rashid Dostum Abdul Haq Jalaluddin Haqqani Gulbuddin Hekmatyar Ismail Khan Ahmad Shah Massoud Strength Soviet forces: 80... TIME magazine cover depicting Lech WaÅ‚Ä™sa and the Solidarity movement shaking up communism shows that Solidarity received wide international recognition. ... Beginning in the late 1970s, major civil wars erupted in the Central American region, and became one of the major foreign policy crises of the 1980s. ... Able Archer 83 was a ten-day NATO exercise starting on November 2, 1983 that spanned the continent of Europe and simulated a coordinated nuclear release. ... The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983[1] to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. ... Combatants United States Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Dominica Jamaica Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Grenada Cuba Commanders Ronald Reagan Joseph Metcalf H. Norman Schwarzkopf Hudson Austin Pedro Tortolo Strength 7,300 Grenada: 1,500 regulars Cuba: about 722 (mostly military engineers)[1] Casualties 19 killed; 116 wounded[2... The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly referred to as the Tiananmen Square Massacre,[1] were a series of demonstrations led by students, intellectuals, and labor activists in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) between April 15 and June 4, 1989. ... Baltic Way, reflecting the peak of the Singing Revolution The Singing Revolution is the common title for events between 1987 and 1990 that led to the regaining of independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. ... View in 1986 from the west side of graffiti art on the walls infamous death strip Walls poster in memory of the fall. ... The Eastern Bloc prior to the political upheavals of 1989. ... An animated series of maps showing the breakup of the second Yugoslavia; The different colors represent the areas of control. ... This is a history of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. ... Senator John W. Bricker, the sponsor of the proposed constitutional amendment to limit the treaty power of the United States government. ... // (Russian: IPA: ) is politics of maximal openness, transparency of activity of all official (governmental) institutes, and freedom of information. ... Warsaw Pact countries to the east of the Iron Curtain are shaded red; NATO members to the west of it â€” blue. ... A 1947 comic book published by the Catechetical Guild Educational Society warning of the dangers of a Communist takeover. ... For other uses of Operation Condor, please see Operation Condor (disambiguation) Operation Condor (Spanish: OperaciÃ³n CÃ³ndor, Portuguese: OperaÃ§Ã£o Condor) was a campaign of political repressions involving assassination and intelligence operations officially implemented starting in 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships that dominated the Southern Cone in South... Emblem of Gladio, Italian branch of the NATO stay-behind paramilitary organizations. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... CIA redirects here. ... A Soviet poster reading COMECON: Unity of Goals, Unity of Action The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON / Comecon / CMEA / CEMA), 1949 â€“ 1991, was an economic organization of communist states and a kind of Eastern Bloc equivalent toâ€”but more inclusive thanâ€”the European Economic Community. ... The European Community (EC) was originally founded on March 25, 1957 by the signing of the Treaty of Rome under the name of European Economic Community. ... This article is about the KGB of the Soviet Union. ... Logo of East Germanys Ministerium fÃ¼r Staatssicherheit (MfS or Stasi) / Ministry for State Security This article is about Stasi, the secret police of East Germany. ... The term arms race in its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. ... U.S. and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945-2006. ... For other uses, see Space Race (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... This article is about the form of society and political movement. ... For architecture, see Stalinist architecture. ... Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as advocated by Leon Trotsky. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet policy doctrine, introduced by Leonid Brezhnev in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it... The Ulbricht Doctrine, named after East German leader Walter Ulbricht, was the assertion that normal diplomatic relations between East Germany and West Germany could only occur if both states fully recognised each others sovereignty. ... The Carter Doctrine was proclaimed by President Jimmy Carter in his State of the Union Address on 23 January 1980. ... This article is about foreign policy. ... The domino theory was a mid-20th century foreign policy theory, promoted by the government of the United States, that speculated that if one land in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. ... The Eisenhower Doctrine, given in a message to the United States Congress on January 5, 1957, was the foreign policy of U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. ... The Johnson Doctrine, enunciated by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson. ... The Kennedy Doctrine refers to foreign policy initiatives of the 35th President of the United States, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, towards Latin America during his term in office between 1961 and 1963. ... The Nixon Doctrine was put forth in a press conference in Guam on July 25, 1969 by Richard Nixon. ... Ostpolitik or Eastern Politics describes the realisation of the Change through Rapprochement principle, verbalised by Egon Bahr in 1963, by the effort of Willy Brandt, Chancellor of West Germany, to normalize relations with Eastern European nations including East Germany. ... Peaceful coexistence was a theory developed during the Cold War among Communist states that they could peacefully coexist with capitalist states. ... The Reagan Doctrine was a strategy orchestrated and implemented by the United States to oppose the global influence of the Soviet Union during the final years of the Cold War. ... Rollback was a term used by American foreign policy thinkers during the Cold War. ... The Truman Doctrine was a proclamation by U.S. president Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947. ... Map of Cold-War era Europe and the Near East showing countries that received Marshall Plan aid. ... // At its simplest, the Cold War is said to have begun in 1947. ...

Contents

History 1961–1970 GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");