For other uses of the name and term 'Sati', see , see Sati. The practice of Satī (Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat "true") (also suttee) is a Hindu funeral custom, now rare, in which the widow would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. Sati may refer to any of the following: The Hindu Goddess Sati, daughter of Daksha and wife of Shiva A social practise in some parts of India in past centuries, often spelt Suttee The Buddhist Sati; see mindfulness. ... Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century) DevanāgarÄ« (देवनागरी — in English pronounced ) (ISCII – IS13194:1991) [1] is an abugida alphabet used to write several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. ... Sat is a Sanskrit adjective meaning real, being, existing as well as true, honest, right (compare the double menaing of English true). ... Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... For other uses, see Funeral (disambiguation). ... A widow is a woman whose spouse has died. ... Thích Quảng Đức pictured during his self-immolation. ... An Ubud cremation ceremony in 2005. ... The term is derived from the original name of the goddess Sati also known as Dakshayani, who immolated herself, unable to bear the humiliation of her (living) husband Shiva by her father Daksha. The term may also be used to refer to the widow herself. The term sati is now sometimes interpreted as 'chaste woman'. In the Hindu religion, SatÄ« (Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat true) or Dākshāyani is the Goddess of marital felicity and longevity; she is worshipped particularly by ladies to seek the long life of their husbands. ... In Hinduism, Daksha, the skilled one, is an ancient creator god, one of the Prajapatis, the Rishis and the Adityas, and a son of Aditi and Brahma. ... Contents 1 Origin 2 Practice 2.1 Compulsion 2.2 Royal funerals 2.3 Symbolic sati 2.4 Jauhar 2.5 Burials 3 Prevalence 3.1 Numbers 3.2 Communities 3.3 Regional variations 3.4 Recent incidence 4 Justifications and criticisms 4.1 Scriptures 4.1.1 Argument that the Rig Veda sanctions sati 4.2 Counter-arguments within Hinduism 4.3 Non-Hindu views and criticisms 4.4 Argument that sati was an act of self defence 5 Suppression 5.1 Mughal period 5.2 British and other European territories 5.3 Modern times 6 See also 7 References 8 Notes 9 External links

Suicide History of suicide List of suicides Views on suicide Medical | Cultural Legal | Philosophical Religious | Right to die Suicide crisis Intervention | Prevention Crisis hotline | Suicide watch Types of suicide Suicide methods | Copycat suicide Cult suicide | Euthanasia Familicide | Forced suicide Internet suicide | Mass suicide Murder-suicide | Ritual suicide Suicide attack | Suicide pact Suicide by cop | Teenage suicide Related phenomena Parasuicide | Self-harm Suicidal ideation | Suicide note This box: view • talk • edit

Part of a series on Hinduism For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ... Suicide has been committed by people from all walks of life since the beginning of known history. ... This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy certain standards for completeness. ... Modern medical views on suicide consider suicide to be a mental health issue. ... Various human cultures may have views on suicide not directly or solely linked to religious views of suicide. ... This page concerns suicide. ... In ethics and other branches of philosophy suicide poses a difficult question, answered differently by philosophers from different times and traditions. ... There are a variety of religious views of suicide. ... For the 1987 film, see Right to Die (film) The term right to die refers to various issues around the death of an individual when that person could continue to live with the aid of life support, or in a diminished or enfeebled capacity. ... A suicide crisis, suicidal crisis, or potential suicide, is a situation in which a person is attempting to kill himself or is seriously contemplating or planning to do so. ... Modern medical views on suicide consider suicide to be a mental health issue rather than allowing that individuals can make a sane or reasoned choice to take their own life. ... Various suicide prevention strategies have been used: Promoting mental resilience through optimism and connectedness. ... As a suicide prevention initiative, this sign on the Golden Gate Bridge promotes a special telephone that connects to a crisis hotline. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A suicide method is any means by which a person purposely kills him- or herself. ... A copycat suicide is defined as a duplication or copycat of another suicide that the person attempting suicide knows about either from local knowledge or due to accounts or depictions of the original suicide on television and in other media. ... Cult suicide is that phenomenon by which some cults, have led to their membership committing suicide. ... For mercy killings not performed on humans, see animal euthanasia. ... A familicide is a type of murder or murder-suicide in which at least one spouse and one or more children are killed. ... Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is given the choice of committing suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse, such as suffering torture; having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured or killed; or losing honor, position or means. ... An Internet suicide is a suicide pact made between individuals who meet on the Internet. ... Mass suicide occurs when a number of people kill themselves together with one another or for the same reason and is usually connected to a real or perceived persecution. ... A murder suicide is an act in which an individual kills one or more other persons immediately before, or while killing himself. ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ... A suicide attack is an attack on a military or civilian target, in which an attacker intends to kill others, and knows that they will either certainly or most likely die in the process (see suicide). ... A suicide pact describes the suicides of two or more individuals in an agreed-upon plan. ... Suicide-by-cop is a suicide method in which someone deliberately acts in a threatening way towards a law enforcement officer, with the main goal of provoking a lethal response (e. ... Teenage suicide is the self-killing of a teenager. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Self-harm (SH) is deliberate injury to ones own body. ... Suicidal ideation is common medical term for the mere thoughts about and of plans of committing suicide, not the actual following through or act itself. ... A suicide note is a message left by someone who later attempts or commits suicide. ... Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... History · Deities Denominations · Literature Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Hinduism has prehistoric roots, including suspected survivals of traditions of the Bronze Age and right through to when yamum got down and funky. ... Within Hinduism a large number of personalities, or forms, are worshipped as deities or murtis. ... Hinduism encompasses many movements and schools fairly organized within Hindu denominations. ... Hindu mythology is a term used by modern scholarship for a large body of Indian literature that details the lives and times of legendary personalities, deities and divine incarnations on earth interspersed with often large sections of philosophical and ethical discourse. ... Beliefs and practices Dharma · Artha · Kama · Moksha Karma · Samsara · Yoga · Bhakti Maya · Puja · Mandir Hindu philosophy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... For other uses, see Dharma (disambiguation). ... Artha is a Sanskrit term referring to the idea of material prosperity. ... Kāma (Skt. ... Moksha - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Karma is a concept in Hinduism, based on the Vedas and Upanishads, which explains causality through a system where beneficial events are derived from past beneficial actions and harmful events from past harmful actions, creating a system of actions and reactions throughout a persons reincarnated lives. ... For other uses, see Samsara (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation). ... Bhakti (DevanāgarÄ«: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion and also the path of devotion itself, as in Bhakti-Yoga. ... Maya (illusion) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... A puja as performed in Ujjain during the Monsoon on the banks of the overflowing river Shipra. ... The Gopuram of temples, in south India, are adorned with colourful icons depicting a particular story surrounding the temples deity. ... Scriptures Vedas · Upanishads · Ramayana Mahabharata · Bhagavad Gita Purana · others Template:Hindu scriptures - Vedic Scriptures Hindu scripture, which is known as Shastra is predominantly written in Sanskrit. ... Veda redirects here. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... Bhagavad Gīta भगवद्गीता, composed ca the fifth - second centuries BC, is part of the epic poem Mahabharata, located in the Bhisma-Parva chapters 23–40. ... The Puranas are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss devotion and mythology. ... The following is a bibliography of Hindu scriptures and texts. ... Related topics Hinduism by country Gurus and saints · Reforms Ayurveda · Calendar · Criticism Festivals · Glossary · Jyotisha Hinduism - Percentage by country The percentage of Hindu population of each country was taken from the US State Departments International Religious Freedom Report 2004. ... These are some of the most noteworthy Gurus and Saints of Hinduism (in alphabetical order): A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Adi Shankara Akhandanand Mata Amritanandamayi Sri Aurobindo Baba Lokenath Brahmachari Bhakti Tirtha Swami Bhakti Vaibhava Puri Maharaj Bhagawan Nityananda Bhagwan Swaminarayan Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chinmayananda Sri Chinmoy Dharmsamrat Paramhans Swami Madhavananda... Hinduism is going through a phase of regeneration and reform through the vehicle of several contemporary movements, collectively termed as Hindu reform movements. ... Shirodhara, one of the techniques of Ayurveda Ayurveda (Devanagari: ) or Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of health care that is native to the Indian subcontinent. ... A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Glossary of terms in Hinduism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish; sometimes called Hindu astrology, Indian astrology, and/or Vedic astrology) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other... Image File history File links HinduSwastika. ... This box: view • talk • edit

Origin

"Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband", from Pictorial History of China and India, 1851.

Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, approximately 400 AD. While a couple of instances of voluntary self immolation by women as well as men are mentioned in the Mahabharata and other works that may be considered at least partly historical accounts, it is known that large parts of these works are relatively late interpolations into an original story.^[2] Also, the immolation or desire of self immolation is not regarded as a custom in the Mahabharata and as such the word 'sati' as a custom never occurs in the epic as compared to other customs such as the Rajasuya yagna. Rather, the instances are viewed as an expression of extreme grief on the loss of a beloved one. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1084x702, 349 KB) Description: Burning_of_a_Widow in India Source: Robert Sears (Editor): Pictorial History of China and India; Comprising a Description of those Countries and their Inhabitants, ...; New York, Published by Robert Sears, 1851 Scanned by --Immanuel Giel 14:49, 2 Jun... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1084x702, 349 KB) Description: Burning_of_a_Widow in India Source: Robert Sears (Editor): Pictorial History of China and India; Comprising a Description of those Countries and their Inhabitants, ...; New York, Published by Robert Sears, 1851 Scanned by --Immanuel Giel 14:49, 2 Jun... The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in the world. ... Events First invasion of Italy by Alaric (probable date). ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ...

The ritual has prehistoric roots, and many parallels from other cultures are known. Compare for example the ship burial of the Rus' described by Ibn Fadlan, where a female slave is burned with her master ^[3]. Ship burial of Igor the Old in 945, depicted by Heinrich Semiradski (1845-1902). ... Rus’ (????, ) was a medieval East Slavic nation, which, according to the most popular (but by no means only) theory, may have taken its name from a ruling warrior class, possibly with Scandinavian roots. ... Ahmad ibn-al-Abbas ibn Rashid ibn-Hammad ibn-Fadlan (Aḥmad ʿibn alʿAbbās ʿibn Rasẖīd ʿibn ḥammād ʿibn Fadlān أحمد ابن العبا&#1587...

Aristobulus of Cassandreia, a Greek historian who traveled to India with the expedition of Alexander of Macedon, recorded the practice of sati at the city of Taxila. A later instance of voluntary co-cremation appears in an account of an Indian soldier in the army of Eumenes of Cardia, whose two wives vied to die on his funeral pyre, in 316 BC. The Greeks believed that the practice had been instituted to discourage wives from poisoning their husbands.^[4] Aristobulus, of Cassandreia, Greek historian, accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns, of which he wrote an account, mainly geographical and ethnological. ... Bust of Alexander the Great in the British Museum. ... Taxila is an important archaelogical site in Pakistan containing the ruins of the Gandhāran city and university of Takshashila (also Takkasila or Taxila) an important Vedic/Hindu[1] and Buddhist[2] centre of learning from the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. In 1980, Taxila was declared... Eumenes of Cardia (c. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 321 BC 320 BC 319 BC 318 BC 317 BC 316 BC 315 BC 314 BC 313...

Voluntary death at funerals has been described in northern India before the Gupta empire. The original practices were called anumarana, and were not common. They were not necessarily practices that would be understood as sati at present, since it was not necessarily a widow who died. Those who died could be anyone, male or female with a personal loyalty to the dead person. They included other relatives of the dead person, servants, followers or friends. Sometimes these deaths were because of vows of loyalty taken in life^[5]. Compare with later Japanese seppuku. Seppuku (Japanese: 切腹, belly-cutting) is a form of Japanese ritual suicide by disembowelment. ...

Widow burning, the practice as understood today, started to become more extensive after about 500 AD, and the end of the Gupta empire. Some have ascribed the practice to the decline of Buddhism in India, the rise of caste based societies, and the idea that sati was used to reinforce caste status. There are also suggestions that the practice was introduced into India by the Huna Buddhist invaders who contributed to the fall of the Gupta empire. The Decline of Buddhism in India, in the land of its birth occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. ... Common Era (CE)  Modern (SSR = Soviet Socialist Republic) Afghanistan  Azerbaijan  Bahrain  Iran  Iraq  Tajikistan  Uzbekistan  This box:      The Hephthalites (425 - 557 CE) (Persian: ‎ or هپتالیان) were a people of obscure origin who at certain periods played an important role in the history of Persia and India. ...

At about this time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. The earliest of these is in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, though the largest collections are some centuries later, in Rajasthan. These stones, called devli, or sati-stones, became shrines where the dead woman became an object of reverence and worship. They are most common in western India.^[6] , For other uses, see Sagar (disambiguation). ... , Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP)   (HindÄ«: मध्य प्रदेश, English: , IPA: ), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. ... , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ...

By about the 10th century sati, as understood today, was known across much of the subcontinent. It continued to occur, usually at a low frequency and with regional variations, until the early 19th century.

Practice

"A Hindu Suttee"

The act of sati was supposed to take place voluntarily, and from the existing accounts, many of them were indeed voluntary. The act may have been expected of widows in some communities. The extent to which any social pressures or expectations should be considered as compulsion has been the matter of much debate in modern times. It is frequently stated that a widow could expect little of life after her husband's death, especially if she was childless. However, there were also instances where the wish of the widow to commit sati was not welcomed by others, and where efforts were made to prevent the death.^[7] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 528 pixelsFull resolution (1048 × 692 pixel, file size: 76 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) From:The Story Of Baptist Missions In Foreign Lands; Rev. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 528 pixelsFull resolution (1048 × 692 pixel, file size: 76 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) From:The Story Of Baptist Missions In Foreign Lands; Rev. ...

Traditionally, the funeral of any dead person would usually have taken place within a day of the death. Thus a decision by a widow to die at her husband's funeral would often have to be made quickly. In some cases, such as when the husband died elsewhere, it was still possible for the widow to die by immolation, but at a later date.

The connection with the original marriage between the widow and the deceased was emphasized. Unlike other mourners, the sati at the funeral was often dressed in marriage robes or other finery. Her death may have been seen as a culmination of the marriage. In the preliminaries of the related act of Jauhar, both the husbands and wives have been known to dress in their marriage clothes and re-enact their wedding ritual, before going to their separate deaths. Jauhar and Saka were originally the voluntary death of the royal womenfolk of Rajputs and Rajput men. ...

There are accounts of many different approaches of the widow to her death. The majority have the widow seated or lying down on the funeral pyre beside her dead husband. There are also many descriptions of widows who walked or jumped into the flames after the fire had been lit^[8], and there are descriptions of widows who lit their own funeral pyres after seating themselves on it^[9].

Some written prescriptions to the practice exist; a recent one has been quoted at a mailing list. ^[10]

Compulsion

Sati was supposed to be voluntary, but it is agreed that in many cases it may not have been voluntary in practice. Leaving aside the matter of social pressures, there are many accounts of widows being physically forced to their deaths. Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is given the choice of committing suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse, such as suffering torture; having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured or killed; or losing honor, position or means. ...

Pictorial and narrative accounts often describe the widow being seated on the unlit pyre, and then tied or otherwise restrained to keep her from fleeing after the fire was lit. Some accounts say that the woman was drugged. There is one description of men with long poles preventing a widow from fleeing the flames.^[11]

Royal funerals

Royal funerals sometimes have included the deaths of many wives and concubines. A number of examples of these occur in the history of Rajasthan.^[12] , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ...

Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi of Nepal became regent in 1799 in the name of her son, after the abdication of her husband, who became a sannyasin. Her husband returned and took power again in 1804. In 1806 he was assassinated by his brother, and ten days later on 5 May 1806, his widow was forced to commit sati. ^[1]

Symbolic sati

There have been accounts of symbolic sati in some Hindu communities. A widow lies down next to her dead husband, and certain parts of both the marriage ceremony and the funeral ceremonies are enacted, but without her death. ^[13] This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ...

Jauhar

The practice of jauhar, known from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh was the collective suicide of a community facing certain defeat in war. It consisted of the mass immolation of women, children, the elderly and the sick, at the same time that their fighting men died in battle. It is detailed in a separate article. Jauhar and Saka were originally the voluntary death of the royal womenfolk of Rajputs and Rajput men. ... , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ... , Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP)   (HindÄ«: मध्य प्रदेश, English: , IPA: ), often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. ...

Burials

In some Hindu communities, it is conventional to bury the dead. It has been known for deaths of widow to occur in these communities, but with the widow being buried alive with the husband, in ceremonies that are otherwise largely as in the immolation.^[14]

Prevalence

Records exist of sati across most of the subcontinent. However, there seem to have been major differences historically, in different regions, and among different communities.

Numbers

There are no reliable figures for the numbers who died by sati across the country. A local indication of the numbers is given in the records kept by the Bengal Presidency of the British East India Company. The total figure of known occurrences for the period 1813 to 1828 is 8,135^[15], thus giving an average of about 600 per year. Bentinck, in his 1829 report, states that 420 occurrences took place in one (unspecified) year in the 'Lower Provinces' of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and 44 in the 'Upper Provinces' (the upper Gangetic plain)^[16]. Given a population of over 50 million at the time for the Presidency, this suggests a maximum frequency of immolation among widows of well under 1%. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ...

Communities

It is said by some authorities that the practice was more common among the higher castes, and among those who considered themselves to be rising in social status. It was little known or unknown in most of the population of India and the tribal groups^[17]. According to at least one source, it was very rare for anyone in the later Mughal empire except royal wives to be burnt.^[18] However, it has been said elsewhere that it was unusual in higher caste women in the south (quoted from Kamat).

Regional variations

It was known in Rajasthan from the earliest (6th century) to the present. About half the known sati stones (about 150 in total) in India are in Rajasthan. However, the extent to which individual instances of deaths resulted in veneration (glorification) implies that was not very common. , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ...

It is known to have occurred in the south from the 9th century through the period of the Vijayanagara empire. Madhavacharya, who is probably the best known of those historical figures who justified the practice, was originally a minister of the court of this empire. The practice continued to occur after the collapse of the empire, though apparently at a fairly low frequency. A record exists of a minister of the kingdom of Mysore giving permission for a widow to commit sati in 1805.^[19] The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... , For other uses, see Mysore (disambiguation). ...

In the Upper Gangetic plain, while it occurred, there is no indication that it was especially widespread. The earliest known attempt by a government to stop the practice took place here, that of Muhammad Tughlaq, in the Sultanate of Delhi in the 14th century. Muhammad bin Tughluq was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351. ... The Delhi Sultanate, or Sulthanath-e-Hind/Sulthanath-e-Dilli refers to the various dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ...

In the Lower Gangetic plain, the practice may have reached a high level fairly late in history. Based on available evidence and the existing reports of the occurrences of it, the greatest incidence of sati in any region and period, in terms of total numbers, occurred in Bengal and Bihar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.^[20] This was during the earlier period of British rule, and before its formal abolition. The Bengal Presidency kept records from 1813 to 1829. The frequency increased in periods of hardship and famine. Ram Mohan Roy suggested that it was more prevalent in Bengal than in the rest of the subcontinent. An unusually large number of the surviving reports for this period are from Bengal, also suggesting that it was most common there. Year 1813 (MDCCCXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the Father of the Bengal Renaissance Ram Mohan Roy, also written as Rammohun Roy, or Raja Ram Mohun Roy (Bangla: রাজা রামমোহন রায়, Raja Rammohon Rae), (May 22, 1772 – September 27, 1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious...

In modern times, sati has been largely confined to Rajasthan, mostly in or near Shekhawati, with a few instances in the Gangetic plain. , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ... Shekhawati (शेखावाटी) is a semi-arid region located in the northeast part of Rajasthan, India. ...

Recent incidence

Sati still occurs occasionally, mostly in rural areas. About 40 cases have occurred in India since independence in 1947, the majority in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan. Shekhawati (शेखावाटी) is a semi-arid region located in the northeast part of Rajasthan, India. ... , Rājasthān (DevanāgarÄ«: राजस्थान, IPA: )   is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ...

A well documented case from 1987 was that of Roop Kanwar. In response to this incident, some more recent legislation against the practice was passed, first by the state government of Rajasthan, then by the central government of India. Roop Kanwar was a childless 18-year old widow who committed sati on 4 September 1987 at Deorala village in Shekhawati region of Rajasthan state in India . ...

On 18 May 2006, Vidyawati, a 35-year-old woman allegedly committed sati by jumping into the blazing funeral pyre of her husband in Rari-Bujurg Village, Fatehpur district in the State of Uttar Pradesh.^[2] On 21 August 2006, Janakrani, a 40-year-old woman, burnt to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan in Sagar district.^[3] is the 138th day of the year (139th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Justifications and criticisms

Brahmin scholars of the second millennium justified the practice, and gave reasonings as to how the scriptures could be said to justify them. Among them were Vijnanesvara, of the Chalukya court, and later Madhavacharya, theologian and minister of the court of the Vijayanagara empire, according to Shastri, who quotes their reasoning. It was lauded by them as required conduct in righteous women, and it was explained that this was considered not to be suicide (suicide was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures). It was deemed an act of peerless piety, and was said to purge the couple of all accumulated sin, guarantee their salvation and ensure their reunion in the afterlife. The term Brahmin denotes both a member of the priestly class in the Hindu varna system, and a member of the highest caste in the caste system of Hindu society. ... The Chalukya dynasty (Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು) was a powerful Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th century C.E. They began to assert their independence at the decline of the Satavahana empire and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of... It has been suggested that Vidyaranya be merged into this article or section. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... In spiritual terminology, piety is a virtue. ...

Scriptures

Although the myth of the goddess Sati is that of a wife who dies by her own volition on a fire, this is not a case of the practice of sati. The goddess was not widowed, and the myth is quite unconnected with the justifications for the practice. In the Hindu religion, Satī (Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat true) or Dākshāyani is the Goddess of marital felicity and longevity; she is worshipped particularly by ladies to seek the long life of their husbands. ...

The Puranas have examples of women who commit sati and there are suggestions in them that this was considered desirable or praiseworthy: A wife who dies in the company of her husband shall remain in heaven as many years as there are hairs on his person. (Garuda Purana 1.107.29) According to 2.4.93 she stays with her husband in heaven during the rule of 14 Indras, i.e. a kalpa. Purana (Sanskrit: , meaning tales of ancient times) is the name of an ancient Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of Hindu or Jain literature (as distinct from oral tradition). ... For other uses, see Indra (disambiguation). ... Kalevan Pallo is a professional Finnish ice hockey team. ...

In the Ramayana, Tara, in her grief at the death of husband Vali, wished to commit sati. Hanuman, Rama, and the dying Vali dissuade her and she finally does not immolate herself. For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... This article is about the Hindu goddess. ... This article is about a divine entity in Hinduism. ... Rama ( in IAST, in Devanāgarī) or Ramachandra is a legendary or historical king of ancient India. ...

In the Mahabharata, Madri, the second wife of Pandu, immolates herself. She holds herself responsible for the death of her husband, who had been cursed with death if he ever had intercourse. He died while performing the forbidden act with Madri, who blamed herself for not having rejected his advances, although she was well aware of the curse. For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... In the Mahabharata epic, Madri was a princess of the Madra kingdom and the second wife of Pandu. ... In the Mahabharata epic, Pandu is the son of Vichitravirya and his second wife, Ambalika from Vyasa. ...

Passages in the Atharva Veda, including 13.3.1, offer advice to the widow on mourning and her life after widowhood, including her remarriage. The Atharva Veda is a sacred text of Hinduism, part of the four books of the Vedas. ...

Argument that the Rig Veda sanctions sati

It is often claimed that this most ancient text sanctions or prescribes sati. This is based on verse 10.18.7, part of the verses to be used at funerals. Whether they even describe sati or something else entirely, is disputed, The hymn is about funeral by burial, and not by cremation. There are differing translations of the passage. The translation below is one of those said to prescribe it.

इमा नारीरविधवाः सुपत्नीराञ्जनेन सर्पिषा संविशन्तु |

अनश्रवो.अनमीवाः सुरत्ना आ रोहन्तु जनयोयोनिमग्रे || (RV 10.18.7)

Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with ghee (applied) as collyrium (to their eyes). Let these wives first step into the pyre, tearless without any affliction and well adorned.^[21]

The text does not mention widowhood, and other translations differ in their translation of the word here rendered as 'pyre' (yoni, literally "seat, abode"; Griffith has "first let the dames go up to where he lieth"). In addition, the following verse, which is unambiguously about widows, then contradicts any suggestion of the woman's death; it explicitly states that the widow should return to her house. Ghee in a jar Ghee (Hindi घी, Urdu گھی, Punjabi ਘੋ, Kashmiri ग्याव/گیاو - from Sanskrit घृत sprinkled; also known in Arabic as سمن, samn, meaning ghee or fat) is a class of clarified butter that originates in the Indian subcontinent, and continues to be important in Indian cuisine as well as Egyptian cuisine. ... In eye care, a collyrium is a lotion or liquid wash used as a cleanser for the eyes, particularly in diseases of the eye. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

उदीर्ष्व नार्यभि जीवलोकं गतासुमेतमुप शेष एहि |

हस्तग्राभस्य दिधिषोस्तवेदं पत्युर्जनित्वमभि सम्बभूथ || (RV 10.18.8)

Rise, come unto the world of life, O woman — come, he is lifeless by whose side thou liest. Wifehood with this thy husband was thy portion, who took thy hand and wooed thee as a lover.^[22]

A reason given for the discrepancy in translation and interpretation of verse 10.18.7, is that one consonant in a word that meant house, yonim agre "foremost to the yoni", was deliberately changed by those who wished claim scriptural justification, to a word that meant fire, yomiagne. ^[23]

Counter-arguments within Hinduism

No early descriptions or criticisms of the practice within Hinduism, (or in the other native religions of Buddhism or Jainism), are known before the Gupta period, as the practice was little known at that time. A statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha in Tawang Gompa, India. ... Jain and Jaina redirect here. ...

Explicit criticisms later in the first millennium, included that of Medhatithi, a commentator on various theological works. He considered it suicide, which was forbidden by the Vedas

One shall not die before the span of one's life is run out,^[24]

Another critic was Bana, who wrote during the reign of Harsha. Bana condemned it both as suicide, and as a pointless and futile act. There does not seem to be any thought or suggestion among any of these critics that the act would not be voluntary.^[25] Harsha or Harshavardhana (606-648) was an Indian emperor who ruled northern India as paramount monarch for over forty years. ...

Reform and bhakti movements within Hinduism tended to be anti-caste, favoured egalitarian societies, and in line with the tenor of these beliefs, they generally condemned the practice, sometimes explicitly. The Alvars condemned sati, in the 8th century^[26]. The Virashaiva movement in the 12th and 13th centuries, also condemned it^[27]. Alvar on the shoreline of Lake Eries Kelleys Island An alvar or pavement barren is a limestone plain with thin or no soil and, as a result, sparse vegetation. ... Lingayatism is a religious movement in India. ...

In the early 19th century, Ram Mohan Roy wrote and disseminated arguments that the practice was not part of Hinduism, as part of his campaign to ban the practice. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the Father of the Bengal Renaissance Ram Mohan Roy, also written as Rammohun Roy, or Raja Ram Mohun Roy (Bangla: রাজা রামমোহন রায়, Raja Rammohon Rae), (May 22, 1772 – September 27, 1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious...

Non-Hindu views and criticisms

The Sikh religion explicitly proscribed the practice, by about 1500.^[28] Religions Sikhism Scriptures Guru Granth Sahib Languages English, Punjabi] A Sikh (English: or ; Punjabi: , , IPA: ) is an adherent to Sikhism. ...

The principal foreign early visitors to the subcontinent whose have left records of the practice, are from Western Asia, mostly Muslim, and later on, Europeans. Both groups were fascinated by the practice, and sometimes described it as horrific, but often also as an incomparable act of devotion ^[29]. Ibn Battuta described an instance, but said that he collapsed or fainted and had to be carried away from the scene. European artists in the eighteenth century produced many images for their own native markets, showing the widows as heroic women, and moral exemplars.^[30] It has been suggested that Travelling route of Ibn Batuta be merged into this article or section. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ...

As Islam established itself in the subcontinent, their opinion of sati changed to regarding it as a barbaric practice. The earliest known governmental effort to halt the practice were by Muslim rulers, including Muhammad Tughlaq.

Europeans also showed a change in their attitude to local customs as they became dominant local powers. The earliest Europeans to establish themselves were the Portuguese in Goa. They tried early on to override local customs and practices, including sati, as they attempted to Christianise territories in their control. The British entered India as a trading body, and in the earlier periods of their rule, they were largely indifferent to local practices. The practice of sati, and its later legal abolition by the British (along with the suppression of thuggee) went on to become one of the standard justifications for British rule. British attitudes in their later history in India are usually given in the following much repeated quote, usually ascribed to General Napier - For other uses, see Goa (disambiguation). ... A drawing of Thug Prisoners published by Illustrated London News, C. 1857 Thuggee (or tuggee) (from Hindi ‘thief’, from Sanskrit ‘scoundrel’, from ‘to conceal’) was an Indian network of secret fraternities who were engaged in murdering and robbing travellers, operating from the 17th century (possibly as early as 13th century... General Sir Charles James Napier General Sir Charles James Napier GCB (August 10, 1782 – August 29, 1853) was a British general and Commander-in-Chief in India. ...

You say that it is your custom to burn widows. Very well. We also have a custom: when men burn a woman alive, we tie a rope around their necks and we hang them. Build your funeral pyre; beside it, my carpenters will build a gallows. You may follow your custom. And then we will follow ours.^[31]

In her article "Can the Subaltern Speak?", Gayatri Spivak, an English professor at Columbia University, discusses whether sati can be a form of self-expression by women who cannot demonstrate their independence in any other manner. ^[4] Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak is a deconstructive literary critic and theorist of Indian extraction. ... Alma Mater Columbia University is a private university in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. ...

Argument that sati was an act of self defence

Hindu scholars such as Prabhat Varun have tried to show that Sati was not part of Hindu doctrine at all, but a practice of voluntary immolation by Hindu women as a means to avoid humiliation and stigma associated with rape and molestation during periods of Muslim rule in India. ^[5]

Suppression

Mughal period

Humayun issued a royal fiat against sati, which he later withdrew. Nasiruddin Humayun (March 6, 1508 – February 22, 1556), second Mughal Emperor, ruled in India from 1530–1540 and 1555–1556. ...

Akbar required that permission be granted by his officials, and these officials were instructed to delay the woman's decision for as long as possible. The reasoning was that she was less likely to chose to die once the emotions of the moment had passed. In the reign of Shah Jahan, widows with children were not allowed in any circumstances to burn. In other cases governors did not readily give permission, but could be bribed to do so^[32]. Later on in the Mughal period, pensions, gifts and rehabilitative help were offered to the potential sati to wean her away from committing the act. Children were strictly forbidden from the practice. The later Moghuls continued to put obstacles in the way but the practice carried on in the areas outside their capitals. This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Shahabuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan (also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan. ...

The strongest attempts to control it were made by Aurangzeb. In 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt"^[33]. In spite of such attempts however, the practice continued, especially in conditions of war and upheaval. Aurangzeb (Persian: ), also known as Alamgir I (Persian: ), (November 3, 1618 – March 3, 1707) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1658 until his death. ...

British and other European territories

By the end of the 18th century, the practice had been banned in territories held by some European powers. The Portuguese banned the practice in Goa by about 1515, though it is not believed to have been especially prevalent there^[34]. The Dutch and the French had also banned it in Chinsurah and Pondicherry. The British who by then ruled much of the subcontinent, and the Danes, who held the small territory of Shrirampur, permitted it into the 19th century. For other uses, see Goa (disambiguation). ... Hugli-Chinsura (also commonly known as Hooghly-Chinsura) is a town in West Bengal, India. ... Map of Pondicherry Region, Union Territory of Pondicherry, India Pondicherry (Tamil:புதுவை,Hindi: पॉण्डिचेरी) is a Union Territory of India. ... Shrirampur is a city and a municipal council in Ahmadnagar district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. ...

Attempts to limit or ban the practice had been made by individual British officers in the 18th century, but without the backing of the British East India Company. The first formal British ban was in 1798, in the city of Calcutta only. The practice continued in surrounding regions. Toward the end of the 18th century, the evangelical church in Britain, and its members in India, started campaigns against sati. Leaders of these included William Carey and William Wilberforce, and both appeared to be motivated partly by a desire to convert Indians to Christianity. These movements put pressure on the company to ban the act, and the Bengal Presidency started collecting figures on the practice in 1813. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... William Carey (August 17, 1761 – June 9, 1834) was an English missionary and Baptist minister, known as the father of modern missions. ... William Wilberforce (24 August 1759–29 July 1833) was an English politician and philanthropist. ... Year 1813 (MDCCCXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

From about 1812, the Bengali reformer Raja Rammohan Roy started his own campaign against the practice. He was motivated by the experience of seeing his own sister-in-law commit sati. Among his actions, he visited Calcutta cremation grounds to persuade widows not to so die, formed watch groups to do the same, and wrote and disseminated articles to show that it was not required by scripture. For the overture by Tchaikovsky, see 1812 Overture; For the wars, see War of 1812 (USA - United Kingdom) or Patriotic War of 1812 (France - Russia) For the Siberia Airlines plane crashed over the Black Sea on October 4, 2001, see Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 1812 was a leap year starting... Raja Ram Mohan Roy. ...

On 4 December 1829, the practice was formally banned in the Bengal Presidency lands, by the then governor, Lord William Bentinck. The ban was challenged in the courts, and the matter went to the Privy Council in London, but was upheld in 1832. Other company territories also banned it shortly after. Although the original ban in Bengal was fairly uncompromising, later in the century British laws include provisions that provided mitigation for murder when "the person whose death is caused, being above the age of 18 years, suffers death or takes the risk of death with his own consent".^[35] is the 338th day of the year (339th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Bengal, known as Bango ( Bengali:বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bangodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bengali, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... The Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, known as Lord William Bentinck (14 September 1774 - 17 June 1839) was a British statesman who served as Governor-General of India from 1828 to 1835. ... A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, typically in a monarchy. ... Year 1832 (MDCCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Sati remained legal in some princely states for a time after it had been abolished in lands under British control. The last such state to permit it, Jaipur, banned the practice in 1846. A princely state or native state was a feudal monarchy in British India ruled by a hereditary ruler, who was nominally sovereign. ... , Jaipur   (Hindi: जयपुर, Rajasthan Capital), also popularly known as the Pink City, historically sometimes rendered as Jeypore, is the capital of Rajasthan state, India. ... 1846 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Modern times

In modern India, following outcries after each instance, there have been various fresh measures passed against the practice, which now effectively make it illegal to be a bystander at an event of sati. The law now makes no distinction between passive observers to the act, and active promoters of the event; all are supposed to be held equally culpable. Other measures include efforts to stop the 'glorification' of the dead women. Glorification includes the erection of shrines to the dead, the encouragement of pilgrimages to the site of the pyre, and the derivation of any income from such sites and pilgrims.

Enforcement of these measures is not always consistent however. The enforcement of some measures, such as the possible stopping of worship at ancient shrines, is a matter of modern controversy.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Sati

• Self-immolation
• Persecution of Hindus
• Women in Hinduism
• Hindu Goddess
• Forced suicide
• Ritual suicide

Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... Thích Quảng Đức pictured during his self-immolation. ... Persecution of Hindus refers to the religious persecution inflicted upon Hindus. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... Goddesses are an integral part of Hinduism, and the worship of goddesses is a significant aspect of Hindu religion. ... Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is given the choice of committing suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse, such as suffering torture; having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured or killed; or losing honor, position or means. ... Ritual suicide is the act of suicide motivated by a religious, spiritual, or traditional ritual. ...

References

• Shastri, Shakuntala Rao. Women in the Sacred Laws. - The later law books. 1960.
• M.P.V.Kane History of Dharmasashtra, Vol. IV, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 1953
• L. C. Nand Women in Delhi Sultanate, Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989
• E. Garzilli, "First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems", part 1, in Indo-Iranian Journal, 40/3 August 1997, part 2 in Indo-Iranian Journal, 40/4 October 1997

The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, abbreviated BORI, is located in Pune at the junction of Law College Road and Bhandarkar Road. ...

Notes

1. ^  The spelling suttee is a phonetic spelling using the 19th century English orthography. However the sati transliteration is correct using the more modern IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration) which is the academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet system.
2. ^  http://www.megaone.com/nbulgaria/bulgaria/risala.htm
3. ^  Refs; many, including Yuganta, by Irawati Karve
4. ^ Strabo 15.1.30, 62; Diodorus Siculus 19.33; Sati Was Started For Preserving Caste
5. ^ . Shastri, See References
6. ^ Shastri, See References
7. ^  Letter, Panduranga Joshi Kulkarni is a description by a man who stopped his daughter in law's suicide. This might have been for monetary reasons. Women in World History A project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.
8. ^  See Kamat for two examples
9. ^ Primary Sources: Letter, Francois Bernier Women in World History A project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.
10. ^ The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. - This says 'likely'
11. ^ Women In The Sacred Laws by Shakuntala Rao Shastri The later law - Books: Page 24 Some of these included servants. These should probably all be seen as being in the original tradition of anumarana, perhaps a separate article.
12. ^ Defying blessings of the goddess and the community: Disputes over sati (widow burning) in contemporary India by Masakazu Tanaka. An example in Tamil Sri Lanka.
13. ^  The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.
14. ^  Hindu Bengali Widows Through the Centuries from the Datamation Foundation a non-profit, apolitical, non-partisan registered Charitable Trust (Trust Deed # 3258 dated March 8, 2001) with its head office at Delhi.
15. ^  Modern History Sourcebook: On Ritual Murder in India 1829] by William Bentinck
16. ^  It was little known or unknown in the lowest castes and the tribal groups and elsewhere
    • http://www.vivaaha.org/sati.htm Not available when footnotes constructed
    • The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.
17. ^  John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat "Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almost laid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces. And now it is very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all."
18. ^  The Tradition of Sati Through the Centuries Kamat's potpourri: The Sati System
19. ^  The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (No.3 of 1988) on the web site of the Harvard School of Public Health
20. ^  http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe07/sbe07027.htm
21. ^  quoted from Shastri
22. ^  3.1 Women in Indo-Aryan Societies:Sati this translation is ascribed to Kane References Pages 199-200
23. ^  http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10018.htm compare alternative translation by Griffith:

    Let these unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent.

    Decked with fair jewels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the dames go up to where he lieth.

24. ^  http://www.hindu-religion.net/showflat/cat/hinduism/67586/0/collapsed/5/o/1 Hindu-religion.net] copy of The Rigveda: Widows don’t have to burn by O. P. Gupta Publication: The Asian Age Date: October 23, 2002
25. ^  quoted directly from Shastri's book, translation source not given
26. ^  see Shastri, quoted elsewhere
27. ^ The little-known Srivaisnava sect in Tamil Nadu is among the few religious traditions in India that treats women on par with men by Yoginder Sikand, in Communalism Combat February 1999.
28. ^ http://www.lingayat.com/alingayat/alingayat.asp about Lingayat] on lingayat.com
29. ^  Women in Sikhism Sandeep Singh Brar
30. ^  AN INCOMPARABLE PROPHET:Guru Amar Dass (1479-1574) by Sirdar Kapur Singh (National Professor of Sikhism) on the "Gateway to Sikhism".
31. ^ The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. Bengal Past and Present, 117 (1998): 57-80.
32. ^  Charles James Napier
    • Adherents.com: Religious Groups in Literature Sterling, S. M. Island in the Sea of Time. New York: Penguin (1998); pg. 526.
    • Limp liberals fail to protect their most profound values by Polly Toynbee in The Guardian October 10, 2001
33. ^ Defending Religious Freedom in Poland: Polish Catholics Persecute Krishna Worshippers by Ella Serwin and Magdalena Mola on the Poland (VNN). The Vaishnava News Network (VNN) is an independent network of collaborating Vaishnavas worldwide providing the world Vaishnava community with news and forums of communication.
34. ^ Women and Hinduism in U.S. Textbooks by: David Freedholm on Feb 5 2003 on his blog site. backup site
35. ^ Central Sati Act - An analysis by Maja Daruwala is an advocate practising in the Delhi High Court. Courtsy: The Lawyers January 1988. The web site is called "People's Union for Civil Liberties"
36. ^ XVII. Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals from Muslim Civilization in India by S. M. Ikram edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. This page maintained by Prof. Frances Pritchett, Columbia University
37. ^  Portuguese
    • The Portuguese: Goan History from: Inside Goa by Manohar Malgonkar.
    • To Cherish and to Share: The Goan Christian Heritage Paper presented at the 1991 Conference on Goa at the University of Toronto by: John Correia Afonso S.J. from: "South Asian Studies Papers", no 9; Goa: Goa Continuity and Change; Edited by Narendra K. Wagle and George Coelho; University of Toronto Centre for South Asian Studies 1995
38. ^ Central Sati Act - An analysis by Maja Daruwala is an advocate practising in the Delhi High Court. Courtsy: The Lawyers January 1988. The web site is called "People's Union for Civil Liberties"
39. ^ pp351, Moore, Barrington. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press, 1967.
40. ^ Posting at the Yahoo Indology mailing list, quoting the Yallabhatta, a relatively recent work in Telugu.

IAST, or International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is the academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet and very similar to National Library at Calcutta romanization standard being used with many Indic scripts. ... George Mason University, also known as GMU or simply Mason, is a public university in the United States. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... There have been several people known as William Bentinck, including: Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (1649-1709) William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland (1709-1762) William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland (1768-1854) William Bentinck (1704-1774), a fellow of the Royal Society William Bentinck (1764-1813), a... Harvard School of Public Health The Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) is Harvard Universitys School of Public Health. ... The Asian Age newspaper logo The Asian Age is a newspaper sold in the Indian city of Bombay. ... Teesta Setalvad (b 9 February 1962)[1] is a Mumbai based Indian civil rights activist,[2] journalist and educationist. ... For other uses, see Guardian. ... is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Vaishnavism is the branch of Hinduism in which Vishnu or one of his avatars (i. ... Alma Mater Columbia University is a private university in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. ... The University of Toronto (U of T) is a public research university in the city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. ...

External links

• Sati prevention act
• "What's up with those Indian widows who commit suttee?" from The Straight Dope