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Education in the United States is highly decentralized with funding and curriculum decisions taking place mostly at the local level through school boards. Educational standards are generally set by state agencies. The federal government of the United States through the U.S. Department of Education is involved with funding of some programs and exerts some influence through its ability to control funding. Accreditation of schools is accomplished by voluntary regional associations of educational institutions. There are also non-entreprenurial schools that are private.
Schools in the 50 states primarily teach in English, while schools in the territory of Puerto Rico teach in Spanish.
Preschool
Compulsory Education In the United States, all students must attend mandatory schooling starting with Kindergarten and following through Grade 12 (First grade is not the same as Kindergarten). In practice, parents may send their children to either a public or private institution, though almost all students enter the public schools because they are "free" (tax burdens by school districts vary from area to area). Most children enter Kindergarten at the age of 5 or 6, depending upon eligibility requirements in their district, and leave compulsory education at the age of 18 when their Senior year (Grade 12) of high school ends.
Elementary school (Kindergarten through Grade 5/6) In most districts, Kindergarten through Grade 6 provides a common daily routine for all students except the most disadvantaged and sometimes gifted students. Students do not choose a course structure and remain in a single classroom throughout the school day, with the exceptions of physical education (more commonly known as P.E.) and music or art classes. Sometimes sixth grade is made part of middle school, a practice which is becoming more and more common.
Education is most thoroughly unstandardized at this level, and teachers receive a book to give to the students for each subject and only a brief overview of what they are expected to teach. In general, a student learns through extremely rudimentary algebra in mathematics, grammar and spelling in English (or language), and a year of state, U.S., and world history. Science varies widely from district to district and is one of the most undertaught subjects; most elementary teachers have a degree in English or Primary education.
Middle school (Grades 6/7 through 8) Middle school or Junior high school refers to schools that begin in 6th or 7th grade and end in 8th, though they may rarely include 9th grade at this level as well. The term "junior high school" and the arrangement beginning with 7th grade is becoming less common.
At this time, students begin to take their classes in a scheduled way, unlike in elementary school where all classes are with the same teacher. The classes are usually a strict set of a science, math, English, social science courses, interspersed with a reading and/or technology class. Every year from Kindergarten through ninth graded usually also includes a physical education or P.E. class. Student-chosen courses, known as Electives, are generally only one or two classes.
High school (Grades 9 through 12) High school runs from grades 9 through 12. Some school districts deviate from this formula. The most widely seen difference is to include 9th grade in Middle school, though it is realatively old practice which is disappearing. In high school, students obtain much more liberal control of their education, often choosing even their core classes. However, students in America, unlike their counterparts in other developed nations, do not begin to specialize into any in fields until (most commonly) their Sophomore (2nd) year of college. They mostly take a broad variety of classes, without special emphasis. For example, the common science regimen in high school consists of a year each of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics, and sometimes an additional year of one of the three, depending upon the student's motivation.
During their high school career, students, usually in their junior year (grade 11), may take zero or more standardized tests depending on their postsecondary education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In theory, these tests evaluate the level of knowledge and learning aptitude they have attained. The SAT and ACT are the most common standardized tests that students take when applying to college. A students may take the SAT, ACT, both, or neither depending on the college the student plans to apply to. However, not all students move on to postsecondary education, and may not need to take the tests.
All high schools do not contain the same rigorous course-work as others. Most high and middle schools have classes known as "honors" classes for motivated and gifted students, where the quality of education is usually higher and much tougher. If funds are available, a high school may provide Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate courses, which are special forms of honors classes. Most postsecondary institutions take AP or IB exam results into consideration in the admissions process. Because AP and IB courses are supposed to be the equivalent of freshman year college courses, postsecondary institutions may grant unit credit which enables students to graduate early. Both public schools and private schools in wealthy neighborhoods are able to provide many more AP and IB course options than impoverished inner-city high schools, and this difference is seen as a major cause of the differing outcomes for their graduates.
College or University - College or University, also known as postsecondary education. Undergraduate grades are also called Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, and Senior years.
- Undergraduate
- College or university
- Four years leading to a Bachelor of Arts (BA), a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree, or sometimes another bachelor's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA).
- Community college
- Lower division, two years leading to an Associate of Arts (AA) degree. Some state community college systems only offer a lower division program. Those seeking to continue their education must transfer to a four-year college or university. See articulation (education).
- Upper division, two years leading to BA, BS, or sometimes, other bachelor's degree such as BT (Bachelor of Technology).
- Community college / university partnerships
- Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first 2 years of study and the four-year university provides the 3rd and 4th year of study, all on one campus. For example, the University of Houston System has partnered with community colleges in neighboring cities to provide bachelor's and master's degrees in cities that are only served by community colleges. The community college awards the associate's degree and the university awards the bachelor's and master's degrees.
- Postgraduate
- One to three years leading to a Master's Degree (MA), Master of Science (MS), or sometimes other Master's degree such as Master of Education (MEd) or Master of Fine Arts (MFA).
- Three or more years after the completion of a Master's degree, leading to a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education or Doctor of Theology. See doctorate.
- A first-professional doctorate such as Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy and Juris Doctor (law degree). See doctorate.
- Some programs like medicine have formal apprenticeship-like procedures like residency and internship which must be completed after graduation, before one is considered to be fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam).
Entrance into postgraduate programs usually depends upon a student's undergraduate academic performance as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the GRE (graduate schools in general), the LSAT (law), the GMAT (business), or the MCAT (medicine). Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a Bachelor's degree to enter their programs; however, business schools often wish to see several years of real-world work experience first.
Public vs. Private schools Unlike most other industrialized countries, the United States does not have a nationalized educational system. Thus, K-12 students in most areas have a choice between free taxpayer-funded public schools, and private schools, which charge varying rates depending on geographic location and religious status. For example, some churches will partially subsidize a private school for its members. Some people have argued that when their child attends a private school, they should be able to take the funds which the public school no longer needs and apply that money towards private school tuition in the form of vouchers; this is the basis of the school choice movement.
Although they are free to all students, most public K-12 schools are moderately underfunded by their respective governments, and can only afford to employ teachers with bachelor's and associate's degrees. Class sizes vary widely; some states achieve average sizes of less than 20 students, but class sizes can run as high as 40 or 45. It is widely believed that large class sizes contribute to discipline problems and a poor learning environment. Meanwhile, the physical infrastructure tends to be in various states of decay, and wealthier districts are often more advanced and better prepared than students in private schools. In poorer districts, teachers often must buy materials for their students out of their own salaries.
In contrast, private schools usually maintain high quality facilities and a sufficient number of teachers to keep class sizes lower than in public schools, generally around 15 and usually capped at 20. This is possible partly because private schools pay their teachers less (often about 80% of the public school pay scale) and partly because private schools are at liberty to refuse any more students after they have reached their full capacity, whereas public schools are required by law to give education to anyone who signs up. As a result, admission is competitive, often based on university entrance exams like the SAT. Discipline also tends to be stricter in private schools than in public schools, as persistently unruly students may be permanently expelled from their campuses (and forced to return to the public school system).
Colleges and Universities In American terminology, a college or university (the terms are generally interchangeable in common discourse) is an undergraduate institution that may award associate, bachelor, or master's degrees (alternatively named Ph.D.s or doctorates in medical and scientific fields). Strictly speaking, a university usually consists of at least one undergraduate college which awards bachelor's degrees and several graduate schools, which award master's degrees and Ph.D.s or doctorates.
Each state maintains its own public university system, which is always nonprofit. Most areas will also have private institutions which may be for-profit or non-profit. The most prestigious universities are part of the Ivy League and are known by this term.
Cost The vast majority of students lack the financial resources to pay tuition up-front and must rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender. All but a few charity institutions charge tuition to all students, although scholarships (both merit-based and need-based) are widely available. Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference. Because each state supports its own university system with state taxes, most public universities charge much higher rates for out-of-state students. Private universities are generally considered to be of higher quality than public universities, although there are many exceptions. The absence of state funds tends to drive private universities to offer better services to students.
Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state, and many additional fees apply. A typical year's tuition at a public university (for residents of the state) would be about $5,000. Tuition for public school students from outside the state are generally comparable to private school prices, although students can generally get state residency after their first year. Private schools are typically much higher, although prices vary widely from "no-frills" private schools to highly specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $40,000. Note that these prices do not include living expenses (rent, room/board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as "activities fees" or health insurance, which can range from $6,000 to $12,000 an academic year (assuming a single student without children).
The status ladder One problem which seems, at least to some, to be ubiquitous in education in the United States is that American colleges and universities are highly status-conscious and are generally sorted by prestige based on their selectivity in admissions.
It is almost universally acknowledged that the most prestigious universities are the private universities that belong to the Ivy League athletic conference on the East Coast, but it is not necessarily true that they offer a better education. The alumni of these colleges also constitute a large part of the faculties at most other universities. Less than 10-15% of those who apply are accepted.
On the next status rung are a small group of elite private universities scattered around the country. After these come the top land-grant public universities, and then the vast majority of public and private universities, colleges, and technical schools. At the bottom are community colleges, which by law are usually required to accept all local residents who seek to attend and rarely offer anything beyond an associate degree. In fact, some status conscious people are almost embarassed to admit that they are going to attend one. In general, community colleges have a relationship with 4 year state universities and colleges which allow students from community colleges to transfer to these universities. They usually have a group of classes for which credit transfers to the 4-year college.
This "ladder" is not absolute; however. Some non-Ivy-League private universities, such as MIT and Stanford University can rival Ivy League schools in prestige, especially in newer or more specialized fields of study. Likewise, some elite public universities are comparable to their private counterparts. There is no absolute correlation between prestige and quality of education (albeit, there may be a general one), and most schools are better in some areas than in others, for which other universities may offer better courses. Ranked lists of institutions such as that published annually by news magazine U.S. News & World Report (one of the most popular and most widely acknowledged) attempt to quantify the positions of the schools; such rankings invariably invite debate.
Contemporary issues in the United States Major educational issues in the United States center on curriculum, funding, and control. Of critical importance, because of its enormous implications on education and funding, the No Child Left Behind Act is as controversial as it is overarching.
Curriculum issues
Funding in the United States Each state government provides free schools for residents, funded by taxes (often on real estate). - Vouchers: have voucher programs helped students learn better? Or do they damage public education? What are the trends?
- Spending: is there any correlation between per-pupil spending and student achievement?
- Class size: does hiring more teachers to reduce the teacher-student ratio have any correlation with student achievement?
- Current trends in US: building more prisons than schools. Samuel Clemens' thoughts on the matter:
- Every time you stop a school, you will have to build a jail. What you gain at one end you lose at the other. It's like feeding a dog on his own tail. It won't fatten the dog. —Speech 11/23/1900
At the college and university level, funding becomes a major tangle, as the US Government offers partial subsidies for education at accredited universities through federal financial aid and student loans. However, there is very little standardization as to how funding can be applied, often leading to a great deal of confusion regarding what steps to take.
Some of the reason for the confusion at the college/university level in the United States is that student loan funding is split in half; half is managed by the Department of Education directly, called the Federal Direct Student Loan Program (FDSLP). The other half is managed by commercial entities such as banks, credit unions, and financial services firms such as Sallie Mae, under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP). Some schools accept only FFELP loans; others accept only FDSLP. Still others accept both, and a few schools will not accept either, in which case students must seek out private alternatives (http://www.alternativestudentloan.com/) for student loans.
All federal funding is provided by the Higher Education Act of 1965, which is up for reauthorization in calendar year 2004.
Control - Who's responsible for a child's education?
- Who decides curriculum contents: what should be mandatory, what should be forbidden?
There are some facts. - In U.S. law parents have the ultimate responsibility for, and authority over their children's education.
- The crucial tests of this legal doctrine occurred in attempts to sue public school officials for malpractice, in cases where, for example, illiterate young people graduated from high-school.
- The U.S. Supreme Court (Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972)) defined the proper goal for education as "literacy and self-sufficiency," that is, an educated, not a socialized child was recognized as the essential goal for the U.S.'s democratic republic.
- This decision is now interpreted as court recognition that parents have a fundamental right to choose the method to achieve literacy and self-sufficiency, that is to educate their children.
History
Expansion of American education during the late 1800s In 1870, only 2% of 17 year olds graduated from high school. By 1900, however, 31 states required 8–14 year olds to attend school. As a result, by 1910, 72 percent of American children attended school and half of the nation's children attended one-room schools. Lessons consisted of students reading aloud from their texts such as the McGuffey Readers, and emphasis was placed on rote memorization. Teachers often used physical punishments, such as hitting students on the knuckles with birch switches, for incorrect answers. Because the public schools focused on assimilation, many immigrants, who resisted Americanization, sent their children to private religious schools.
Higher Education Between 1880 and 1885, more than 150 new colleges and universities were opened in America. Philanthropists endowed these institutions. Leland Stanford, one of The Big Four, for example, established Stanford University in 1885.
See also: Education by country.
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