History of South Asia and History of India
Stone Age	70,000–3300 BCE
· Mehrgarh Culture	· 7000–3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization	3300–1700 BCE
Late Harappan Culture	1700–1300 BCE
Iron Age	· 1200–500 BCE
Maha Janapadas	700–300 BCE
Magadha Empire	684 BCE–320 BCE
· Maurya Empire	· 321–184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms	230 BCE–1279 CE
· Satavahana Empire	· 230 BCE–199 CE
· Kushan Empire	· 60–240
· Gupta Empire	40–550
· Pala Empire	· 750–1174
· Chola Empire	· 250 BCE–1279
Islamic Sultanates	1206–1596
· Delhi Sultanate	· 1206–1526
· Deccan Sultanates	· 1490–1596
Hoysala Empire	1040–1346
Kakatiya Empire	1083–1323
Vijayanagara Empire	1336–1565
Mughal Empire	1526–1707
Sikh Empire	1801-1849
Maratha Empire	1674–1818
Colonial Era	1757–1947
Modern States	1947 onwards
Nation histories Bangladesh · Bhutan · Republic of India Maldives · Nepal · Pakistan · Sri Lanka
Regional histories Bengal · Himachal Pradesh · Orissa Pakistani Regions · North India · South India · Tibet
Specialised histories Dynasties · Economy · Indology · Language · Literature Maritime · Military · Science and Technology · Timeline
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Science and technology in ancient India covered many major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy and physics, metallurgy, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games. This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1700 BC. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bangladesh. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bhutan. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Maldives. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Nepal. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sri_Lanka. ... The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in South Asia. ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... The // (c. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... The Sātavāhanas (Marathi:सातवाहन Telugu:సాతవాహనులు), also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar, Pune over Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire. ... The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in South Asia. ... The Delhi Sultanate (دلی سلطنت), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (سلطنتِ ہند) / Sulthanath-e-Dilli (سلطنتِ دلی) refers to the various Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled kingdoms–-Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... The Kakatiya Dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 to 1323. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... Flag Mughal Empire at its greatest extent in 1700 Capital Agra, Delhi Language(s) Persian (initially also Chagatai; later also Urdu) Government Monarchy List of Mughal emperors  - 1526-1530 Babur  - 1530–1539 and after restoration 1555–1556 Humayun  - 1556–1605 Akbar  - 1605–1627 Jahangir  - 1628–1658 Shah Jahan  - 1659–1707... The Sikh Empire (from 1801-1849) was formed on the foundations of the Sikh Confederacy by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. ... Flag of the Maratha Empire Extent of the Maratha Empire ca. ... It has been suggested that European colonies in India be merged into this article or section. ... This article is under construction. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire Further information: History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia. ... Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited by human beings since the dawn of civilization. ... // Orissa has a history spanning a period of over 3000 years. ... The historical regions of Pakistan are former states, provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces and territories were finally established. ... The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by Sher Khan of Punjab. The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the territory... The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. ... Tibet is situated between the two ancient civilizations of China and India, but the tangled mountain ranges the Tibetan Plateau and the towering Himalayas serve to distance it from both. ... The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. ... Indology refers to the academic study of the history, languages, and cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies. ... Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world. ... India has had a maritime history dating back around 5,000 years. ... This is a timeline of Indian history. ... Ancient India may refer to: the ancient History of India, which generally includes the ancient history of the whole Indian subcontinent the legendary Kingdoms of Ancient India in Sanskrit literature the Iron Age Mahajanapadas the Middle kingdoms of India of Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages Category: ... This article is under construction. ... Hindu Astronomy is one of the ancient astronomical systems of the world. ... This is a discussion of a present category of science. ... A Blacksmith, the father of the modern metallurgist. ... Shirodhara, one of the techniques of Ayurveda Ayurveda (Devanagari: ) or Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of health care that is native to the Indian subcontinent. ... “Surgeon” redirects here. ... Fine art is a term used to refer to fields traditionally considered to be artistic. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Section of the dome of Florence Cathedral. ... Men from Francisco de Orellanas expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro, to be used in the search for food Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... GAMES Magazine is a United States based magazine devoted to games published by GAMES Publications, a division of Kappa Publishing Group. ...

According to the 19th century British historian, Grant Duff: A historian is an individual who studies history and who writes on history. ... James Cunningham (or Cunninghame) Grant Duff (born July 8, 1789 in Banff, Scotland; died September 23, 1858) was an Indian soldier and statesman. ...

"Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago."

Sciences

Astronomy

Main article: Indian astronomy

Further information: Hindu cosmology and Jyotisha

Ancient India’s contributions to astronomy are well known and documented. The earliest references to astronomy, referring to around 4500 BCE, are found in the Rig Veda. By 500 CE, ancient Indian astronomy emerged as an important part of Indian studies and its affect is seen in several treatises of that period. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters pertaining to astrology (called Jyotisha in India), like the casting of a horoscope. Apart from this link of astronomy to astrology in ancient India, the science of astronomy continued to develop independently and culminated in original findings such as: The astronomy and the astrology of Ancient India (Jyotisha) is based upon sidereal calculations. ... // an egg broke and out came the planets thanks to gods pet hen The Rig Veda describes the origin of the universe as: Then was not non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish; sometimes called Hindu astrology, Indian astrology, and/or Vedic astrology) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy (also frequently referred to as astrophysics) is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). ... The Rig Veda ऋग्वेद (Sanskrit ṛc praise + veda knowledge) is the earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888). ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish; sometimes called Hindu astrology, Indian astrology, and/or Vedic astrology) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other... A horoscope calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA (Longitude: 074W0023 - Latitude: 40N4251). In astrology, a horoscope is a chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, the astrological aspects, and... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...

• The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
• Calculation of Earth’s circumference
• Theorizing about gravity
• Determining that the Sun is a star

This article is about astronomical eclipses. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... The circumference is the distance around a closed curve. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... The Sun (Latin: ) is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... STAR is an acronym for: Organizations Society of Ticket Agents and Retailers], the self-regulatory body for the entertainment ticket industry in the UK. Society for Telescopy, Astronomy, and Radio, a non-profit New Jersey astronomy club. ...

Vedic astronomy

There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the Vedas. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning of the year and that of the vernal equinox in Orion; this was the case around 4500 BCE. Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. The texts that describe their designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BCE, but their contents appear to be much older.

A text on Hindu astronomy was written by Lagadha. Hindu Astronomy is one of the ancient astronomical systems of the world. ... Lagadha (लगध) is the author of Vedanga Jyotisha, the text on Vedic astronomy that has been dated to 1350 BC. This text describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon. ...

The earliest concept of a heliocentric model of the solar system, in which the Sun that is at the centre of the solar system and the Earth that is orbiting it, is found in several Vedic Sanskrit texts written in ancient India. Heliocentric Solar System Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel) In astronomy, heliocentrism is the idea that the sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Major features of the Solar System (not to scale; from left to right): Pluto, Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, the asteroid belt, the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1700 BC. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. ...

The Aitareya Brahmana (2.7) (c. 9th–8th century BCE) states: "The Sun never sets nor rises. When people think the sun is setting, it is not so; they are mistaken." This indicates that the Sun is stationary (hence the Earth is moving around it), which is elaborated in a later commentary Vishnu Purana (2.8) (c. 1st century), which states: "The sun is stationed for all time, in the middle of the day. [...] Of the sun, which is always in one and the same place, there is neither setting nor rising." The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala school. ... The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ...

Yajnavalkya (c. 3rd millennium BCE) recognized that the Earth was round and believed that the Sun was "the centre of the spheres" as described in the Vedas at the time. His astronomical text Shatapatha Brahmana (8.7.3.10) stated: "The sun strings these worlds - the earth, the planets, the atmosphere - to himself on a thread." He recognized that the Sun was much larger than the Earth, which would have influenced this early heliocentric concept. He also accurately measured the relative distances of the Sun and the Moon from the Earth as 108 times the diameters of these heavenly bodies, almost close to the modern measurements of 107.6 for the Sun and 110.6 for the Moon. Sage Yajnavalkya (याज्ञवल्क्य) of Mithila advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon. ... (4th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC – 2nd millennium BC – Syria) (29th century BC ) Creation of the Kingdom of Elam (Iraq) Germination of the Bristlecone pine tree Methuselah about 2700 BC, the oldest tree still living now Dynasty of Lagash in Sumeria Golden age of Ur in Mesopotamia. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ...

Based on his heliocentric model, Yajnavalkya proposed a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the Sun and the Moon, which gives the average length of the tropical year as 365.24675 days, which is only six minutes longer than the modern value of 365.24220 days. This estimate for the length of the tropical year remained the most accurate anywhere in the world for over a thousand years. A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ... A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ...

There is an old Sanskrit shloka (couplet) which also states "Sarva Dishanaam, Suryaha, Suryaha, Suryaha"^{[citation needed]} which means that there are suns in all directions. This couplet which describes the night sky as full of suns, indicates that in ancient times Indian astronomers had arrived at the important discovery that the stars visible at night are similar to the Sun visible during day time. In other words, it was recognized that the sun is also a star, though the nearest one. This understanding is demonstrated in another Sloka which says that when one sun sinks below the horizon, a thousand suns take its place. The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Classical astronomy

Many Indian astronomers had later formulated ideas about gravity and gravitation in the early Middle Ages. The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

The cosmological time cycles explained in the Surya Siddhanta, which was copied from an earlier work, gives: This article aims at providing a thorough (but not verse by verse) exposition of most important topics of and problems related to Surya Siddhanta and its comparison with ancient and modern astronomy, together with its use in astrology. ...

• The average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.2563627 days. This remained the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.

• The average length of the tropical year (the length of the year as observed on Earth) as 365.2421756 days, which is only 2 seconds shorter than the modern value of 365.2421988 days. This estimate remained the most accurate estimate for the length of the tropical year anywhere in the world for another 6 centuries (until Islamic mathematics Omar Khayyam gave a better estimate), and still remains more accurate than the value given by the modern Gregorian calendar currently in use around the world, which gives the average length of the year as 365.2425 days.

Later Indian astronomer-mathematicians such as Aryabhata made references to this text, while later Arabic and Latin translations were very influential in Europe and the Middle East. The sidereal year is the time for the Sun to return to the same position in respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. ... A tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). ... Islamic mathematics is the profession of Muslim Mathematicians. ... Tomb of Omar Khayam, Neishapur, Iran. ... The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world. ... A year (from Old English gēr) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. ... Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

The Indian astronomer-mathematician Aryabhata (476 – 550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya, propounded a mathematical heliocentric model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to a stationary Sun. The treatise also uses a geocentric model of the solar system, in which the Sun and Moon are each carried by epicycles which in turn revolve around the Earth. He also theorized that the light from the Moon and the planets were reflected from the Sun. He also accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon (expressed as a differential equation). Arabic translations of Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya were available from the 8th century, while Latin translations were available from the 13th century, before Copernicus had written De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, so it's possible that Aryabhata's work had an influence on Copernicus' ideas. Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... Events By Place Byzantine Empire Silk reaches Constantinople (approximate date). ... Photo taken during the 1999 eclipse. ... Time lapse movie of the 3 March 2007 lunar eclipse A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earths shadow. ... This article is about astronomical eclipses. ... A simulation of airflow into a duct using the Navier-Stokes equations A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables which relates the values of the function itself and of its derivatives of various orders. ... Arabic can mean: From or related to Arabia From or related to the Arabs The Arabic language; see also Arabic grammar The Arabic alphabet, used for expressing the languages of Arabic, Persian, Malay ( Jawi), Kurdish, Panjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Urdu, among others. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ...

Aryabhata wrote that 1,582,237,500 rotations of the Earth equal 57,753,336 lunar orbits. This is an extremely accurate ratio of a fundamental astronomical ratio (1,582,237,500/57,753,336 = 27.3964693572), and is perhaps the oldest astronomical constant calculated to such accuracy.

Brahmagupta (598-668 CE) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628 CE. Brahmagupta (ब्रह्मगुप्त) (598-668) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. ... , Ujjain   (Hindi:उज्जैन) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti, Avantikapuri) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ... The main work of Brahmagupta, Brahmasphutasiddhanta (The Opening of the Universe), written in 628, contains some remarkably advanced ideas, including a good understanding of the mathematical role of zero, rules for manipulating both positive and negative numbers, a method for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and some quadratic...

Bhaskara (1114-1185), the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continued the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhanta-Shiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also expanded on Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his treatise Siddhanta-Shiromani, where he mentioned the law of gravity, discovered that the planets don't orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity, and accurately calculated many astronomical constants based on this model, such as the solar and lunar eclipses, and the velocities and instantaneous motions of the planets. Bhaskara (1114-1185), also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya (Bhaskara the teacher), was an Indian mathematician-astronomer. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... In physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement or the rate of displacement. ...

The other important names of historical astronomers from India are Madhava and Nilakantha Somayaji. Madhavan (മാധവന്) of Sangamagramam (1350–1425) was a prominent mathematician-astronomer from Kerala, India. ... Nilakantha Somayaji (नीलकण्ठ सोमयाजि) (1444-1544), from Kerala, was a major mathematician and astronomer. ...

Linguistics

Main articles: Vyakarana and Tolkāppiyam

Further information: Panini (grammarian), Bhartrihari, and History of linguistics

Linguistics (along with phonology, morphology, etc.) first arose among Indian grammarians who were attempting to catalog and codify Sanskrit's rules. Modern linguistics owes a great deal to these grammarians, and to this day, for example, key terms for compound analysis such as bahuvrihi are taken from Sanskrit. The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of , is one of the six Vedanga disciplines. ... The Tolkāppiyam (Tamil: ) is a work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil literature. ... Indian postage stamp depicting (2004), with the implication that he used (IPA ) was an ancient Gandharan grammarian (approximately 5th century BC, but estimates range from the 7th to the 3rd centuries) who is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology known as the . ... Bhartrihari (c 450–510) was an Indian author of Wikipedia and early figure in Indic linguistic theory. ... Efforts to describe and explain the human language faculty have been undertaken throughout recorded history. ... Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. ... Phonology (Greek phonē = voice/sound and logos = word/speech), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages). ... For other uses, see Morphology. ... A bahuvrihi (बहुवृहि), or bahuvrihi compound, is a particular kind of compound word that refers to something that is not specified by any of its parts by themselves (i. ...

Linguistics was pursued in ancient India for many centuries. The Sanskrit grammar of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BCE), who is often considered the founder of linguistics, contains a particularly detailed description of Sanskrit morphology, phonology and roots, evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. In particular, he is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī. His sophisticated grammar of Sanskrit continues to be in use to this day. The Indian grammatical tradition is believed to have been active for many centuries before Pāṇini, and anticipates by millennia certain developments in the West, such as the phoneme and the generation of word forms by the successive application of morphological rules for example. (Outside of India, the phoneme seems to have been discovered and forgotten several times through history.) This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... For the topic in theoretical computer science, see Formal grammar Grammar is the study of rules governing the use of language. ... Indian postage stamp depicting (2004), with the implication that he used (पाणिनि; IPA ) was an ancient Indian grammarian from Gandhara (traditionally 520–460 BC, but estimates range from the 7th to 4th centuries BC). ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 570s BC - 560s BC - 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC Events 529 BC - Cambyses II succeeds his father Cyrus as ruler of Persia. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 5th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 500s BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC - 450s BC - 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC Years: 465 BC 464 BC 463 BC 462 BC 461 BC - 460 BC - 459 BC 458 BC... For other uses, see Morphology. ... Phonology (Greek phonÄ“ = voice/sound and logos = word/speech), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages). ... The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ... The Ashtadhyayi (AṣṭādhyāyÄ«, meaning eight chapters) is the earliest known grammar of Sanskrit, and one of the first works on descriptive linguistics, generative linguistics, or linguistics altogether. ... In human language, a phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. ...

The South Indian linguist Tolkāppiyar (c. 3rd century BCE) wrote the Tolkāppiyam, the grammar of Tamil, which is also still in use today. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) was another important author on Indic linguistic theory. He theorized the act of speech as being made up of three stages: conceptualization by the speaker; performance of speaking; and comprehension by the interpreter. The work of Pāṇini, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern structural linguistics. South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the two Union Territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Tolkāppiyam. ... (4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean Rome conquers Spain Great Wall of China begun Indian traders regularly visited Arabia Scythians occupy... The Tolkāppiyam (Tamil: ) is a work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil literature. ... Tamil ( ; IPA ) is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamils in India and Sri Lanka, with smaller communities of speakers in many other countries. ... Bhartrihari (c 450–510) was an Indian author of Wikipedia and early figure in Indic linguistic theory. ... Events August 25 - Marcian proclaimed Eastern Roman Emperor by Aspar and Pulcheria. ... Events Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius is appointed a consul by Theoderic Births Gildas, Celtic monk Deaths Hashim, great-grandfather of Muhammad and ancestor of the Hashemites Categories: 510 ... The Indo-Aryan languages form a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian languages, thus belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. ... Saussure Ferdinand de Saussure (pronounced ) (November 26, 1857 – February 22, 1913) was a Geneva-born Swiss linguist whose ideas laid the foundation for many of the significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century. ... Structuralism as a term refers to various theories across the humanities, social sciences and economics many of which share the assumption that structural relationships between concepts vary between different cultures/languages and that these relationships can be usefully exposed and explored. ...

Mathematics

Main article: Indian mathematics

Mathematics represents a very high level of abstraction attained by the human brain. In ancient India, roots to mathematics can be traced to Vedic literature, which is at least 4000 years old. Between 1000 BCE and 1000 CE, a number of mathematical treatises were authored in India. This article is under construction. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... -1... // Events World Population 300 million. ...

It is now generally accepted that India was the birth place of several mathematical concepts, including zero, the decimal system, algorithm, square root and cube root. The concept of zero origininated in Indian philosophy's concept of "sunya", literally "void". A symbol for zero emerged to represent this philosophical concept. 0 (zero) is both a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. ... In mathematics, computing, linguistics, and related disciplines, an algorithm is a finite list of well-defined instructions for accomplishing some task that, given an initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state. ... In mathematics, a square root of a number x is a number r such that , or in words, a number r whose square (the result of multiplying the number by itself) is x. ... Plot of y = In mathematics, the cube root of a number, denoted or x1/3, is the number a such that a3 = x. ...

Geometric theories were known to ancient Indians and find display in motifs on temple walls, which are in many cases replete with mix of floral and geometric patterns. The method of graduated calculation was documented in the 5th Century CE book Five Principles (Panch-Siddhantika). In art, a motif is a repeated idea, pattern, image, or theme. ... Geometry (from the Greek words Ge = earth and metro = measure) is the branch of mathematics first introduced by Theaetetus dealing with spatial relationships. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ...

Algebraic theories and other mathematical concepts circulating in ancient India, were collected and further developed by Indian mathematician Aryabhatta, who lived in the 5th century in Patna city (then called Pataliputra). He referred to Algebra (as Bijaganitam) in his treatise on mathematics named Aryabhattiya. A 12th century mathematician, Bhaskaracharya, authored several mathematical treatises; one of them, Siddantha Shiromani, has a chapter on algebra. He is known to have given the basic idea of Rolle's Theorem and was the first to conceive of differential calculus. In 1816, James Taylor translated Bhaskaracharya's Leelavati into English. Another translation of the same work by English astronomer Henry Thomas Colebruke appeared in 1817. The Arabs and Persians fine-tuned and internationalized these mathematical concepts. Persian mathematician Al-Khawarizmi developed a technique of calculation that became known as "algorism." This was the seed from which modern arithmetic algorithms have developed. Al-Khwarizmi’s work was translated into Latin under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum, meaning "The System of Indian Numerals." A mathematician in Arabic is called Hindsa, which means "from India." Aryabhata (आर्यभट) (Āryabhaṭa) is the first of the great astronomers of the classical age of India. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... , Paá¹­nā   (Hindi: पटना) is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world. ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... Bhāskara (1114-1185), also called Bhāskara II and Bhāskarācārya (Bhaskara the teacher) was an Indian mathematician. ... In calculus, Rolles theorem states that if a function f is continuous on a closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , and then there is some number c in the open interval such that . Intuitively, this means that if a smooth curve is equal at two points then... Differential calculus is the theory of and computations with differentials; see also derivative and calculus. ... 1816 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... James Vernon Taylor (born March 12, 1948) is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist, born in Belmont, Massachusetts. ... 1817 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... An Arab (Arabic: ) is a member of a complexly defined ethnic group who identifies as such on the basis of one or more of either genealogical, political, or linguistic grounds. ... The Persians of Iran (officially named Persia by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. ... Soviet postage stamp commemorating the 1200th anniversary of Muhammad al‑Khwarizmi in 1983. ... In mathematics, computing, linguistics, and related disciplines, an algorithm is a finite list of well-defined instructions for accomplishing some task that, given an initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ...

The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematicians of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations. Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which explores methods and ideas of calculus repeated only in 17th-century Europe. Madhavan (മാധവന്) of Sangamagramam (1350–1425) was a prominent mathematician-astronomer from Kerala, India. ... The Kerala School was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, South India which included as its prominent members Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. ... In mathematics, a series is a sum of a sequence of terms. ... Jyestadeva (ജ്യേഷ്ഠദേവ(ന്)) (1500-1575), was an astronomer of the Kerala school founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama and a student of Damodara. ... Yuktibhasa (Malayalam:യുക്തിഭാഷ ; meaning — rationale language ) also known as Ganita Yuktibhasa (compendium of astronomical rationale) is a major treatise on Mathematics and Astronomy, written by Indian astronomer Jyesthadeva of the Kerala School of Mathematics in AD 1530. ...

Medicine and surgery

Further information: Ayurveda

In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, made the discovery that the people of Indus Valley Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods (c. 3300 BCE), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men (see History of medicine). Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled, dating back 9,000 years. [1] Shirodhara, one of the techniques of Ayurveda Ayurveda (Devanagari: ) or Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of health care that is native to the Indian subcontinent. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... The // (c. ... Location of Harappa in the Indus Valley. ... (34th century BC - 33rd century BC - 32nd century BC - other centuries) (5th millennium BC - 4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC) Events Unification of the first Ancient Egyptian state, marking the beginning of the Ancient Egyptian civilization. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The science of medicine in ancient India is known as "Ayurveda", literally, "the science of life or longevity" in Sanskrit from "ayur" (age or life) and "veda" (knowledge). Ayurveda constitutes ideas about ailments and diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis and cure, and relies heavily on herbal medicine, including extracts from several plants. This reliance on herbs differentiates ayurveda from systems like allopathy and homeopathy. Ayurveda has also always dissociated itself from witch doctors and voodoo. Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... Medicine is the science and art of maintaining andor restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of patients. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... The term disease refers to an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. ... The term symptom (from the Greek meaning chance, mishap or casualty, itself derived from συμπιπτω meaning to fall upon or to happen to) has two similar meanings in the context of physical and mental health: Strictly, a symptom is a sensation or change in health function experienced by a patient. ... In general, a diagnosis (plural diagnoses) has two distinct dictionary definitions. ... Cure can be: successful treatment of disease preserve (meat, for example), as by salting, smoking, or aging (see curing) prepare, preserve, or finish (a substance) by a chemical or physical process (one example is the curing, or seasoning, of a cast iron pan; another is the curing of an adhesive... Herbs: basil Herbs (IPA: hə()b, or əb; see pronunciation differences) are seed-bearing plants without woody stems, which die down to the ground after flowering. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... Advocates of homeopathy and other forms of alternative medicine often use the term allopathy or allopathic medicine to refer to mainstream, Western medicine. ... Homeopathy starring at the horrors of Allopathy by Alexander Beydeman, 1857 Homeopathy (also spelled homœopathy or homoeopathy), from the Greek words όμοιος, hómoios (similar) and πάθος, páthos (suffering, disease),[1] is a highly controversial type of alternative medicine that aims to treat like with like. ... A witch doctor (in southern Africa known as a Sangoma) often refers to exotic healers that believe that maladies are caused by magic and are therefore best cured by it, as opposed to science or developed medicine. ... Voodoo (Vodou, Vodoun, Vudu, or Vudun in Benin, Togo, southeastern Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Senegal; also Vodou in Haiti) is a name attributed to a traditionally uten West African spiritual system of faith and ritual practices. ...

Ancient scholars of India like Atreya,[2] and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of ayurveda as long back as 800 BCE. Their works and other developments were consolidated by Charaka into a compendium of ayurvedic principles and practices ,Charaka-Samahita, which remained a standard textbook for almost 2000 years, translated into many languages including Arabic and Latin. It deals with a variety of matters covering physiology, etiology and embryology, concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity. Preliminary concepts of genetics are also mentioned; for example, Charaka theorized that blindness from the birth is not due to a defect in the mother or father, but originates in the ovum and the sperm. An Atreya (आत्रेय) is a descendant of Atri, one of the great Hindu sages (rishis) whose accomplishments are detailed in the Puranas. ... Agnivesa was an ancient Indian rishi (sage), and myths of his birth associate his parentage to Agni. ... For a village in Greece, see Charaka (Laconia), Greece Charaka, sometimes spelled Caraka, (perhaps 1st or 2nd century) is one of the founders of Ayurveda. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Etiology (alternately aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A few of the metabolic pathways in a cell. ... Immunity is a medical term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. ... DNA, the molecular basis for inheritance. ... A human ovum Sperm cells attempting to fertilize an ovum An ovum (plural ova) is a haploid female reproductive cell or gamete. ... A spermatozoon or spermatozoan ( spermatozoa), from the ancient Greek σπέρμα (seed) and (living being) and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the haploid cell that is the male gamete. ...

Advances in the field of medical surgery were also made in ancient India, including plastic surgery, extraction of catracts and even dental surgery. The roots of ancient Indian surgery go back to at least circa 800 BCE. The medical theoretician and practitioner Sushruta lived around the 6th century BCE in Kasi (now called Varanasi). He wrote the medical compendium Shushruta-Samahita describing at least seven branches of surgery: Excision, Scarification, Puncturing, Exploration, Extraction, Evacuation, and Suturing. It also deals with matters like rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts). It also focuses on the study the human anatomy by using a dead body. Shushruta also describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies human surgery in 8 categories. Because of his seminal and numerous contributions to the science and art of surgery he is also known by the title "Father of Surgery." Susrutha is also the father of plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery since his technique of forehead flap rhinoplasty (repairing the disfigured nose with a flap of skin from the forehead) that he used to reconstruct noses that were amputated as a punishment for crimes, is practiced almost unchanged in technique to this day. The Susrutha Samhita contains the first known description of several operations, including the uniting of bowel, the removal of the prostate gland, the removal of cataract lenses and the draining of abscesses. Susrutha was also the first surgeon to advocate the practice of operations on inanimate objects such as watermelons, clay plots and reeds; thus predating the modern practice of the surgical workshop by hundreds of years. Inoculation was practiced in China, India, and Turkey, and was a precursor to vaccination for smallpox. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sushruta Samhita. ... (7th century BC - 6th century BCE - 5th century BCE - other centuries) (600s BCE - 590s BCE - 580s BCE - 570s BCE - 560s BCE - 550s BCE - 540s BCE - 530s BCE - 520s BCE - 510s BCE - 500s BCE - other decades) (2nd millennium BCE - 1st millennium BCE - 1st millennium) The 5th and 6th centuries BCE were... Benares (also known as Banaras, Kashi, Kasi and Varanasi (वाराणसी)) is a Hindu holy city on the banks of the river Ganga or Ganges in the modern north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... , VārāasÄ« ( , Hindi: , IPA: ), also known as Benares, Banaras, or Benaras ( , Hindi: , , IPA: ), or Kashi or Kasi ( , Hindi: , ), is a famous Hindu holy city situated on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Rhinoplasty (Greek: , Nose + , to shape) is a type of plastic surgery that is used to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or appearance (cosmetic surgery) of a persons nose. ... “Facial reconstruction” redirects here. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The references in this article would be clearer with a different and/or consistent style of citation, footnoting or external linking. ... Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... “Facial reconstruction” redirects here. ... Plastic surgery is a general term for operative manual and instrumental treatment which is performed for functional or aesthetic reasons. ... Rhinoplasty (Greek: , Nose + , to shape) is a type of plastic surgery that is used to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or appearance (cosmetic surgery) of a persons nose. ... Male Anatomy The prostate is a gland that is part of male mammalian sex organs. ... An abscess is a collection of pus collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process (usually caused by bacteria or parasites) or other foreign materials (e. ... Inoculation, originally Variolation, is a method of purposefully infecting a person with smallpox (Variola) in a controlled manner so as to minimise the severity of the infection and also to induce immunity against further infection. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ...

Yoga is a system of exercise for physical and mental nourishment. Its origins are shrouded in antiquity and mystery. Since Vedic times, the principles and practice of yoga have crystallized. But it was only around 200 BCE that the fundamentals of yoga were collected by Patanjali in his treatise Yogasutra ("Yoga-Aphorisms"; see Yoga Sutras of Patanjali). In short, Patanjali surmised that through the practice of yoga, the energy latent within the human body may be released, which has a salubrious effect on the body and the mind. Modern clinical practices have established that several ailments, including hypertension, clinical depression, amnesia, acidity, can be controlled and managed by yogic practices. The application of yoga in physiotherapy is also gaining recognition. Statue of Shiva performing Yogic meditation Yoga (Devanagari: योग) is a group of ancient spiritual practices originating in India. ... Patañjali, is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of Raja yoga. ... This is an article about the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that treat patients. ... For other forms of hypertension, see Hypertension (disambiguation). ... Clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder, or unipolar depression when compared to bipolar disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Amnesia (from Greek ) (see spelling differences) is a condition in which memory is disturbed. ... Acidity is a controversial novelette written for the popular South Asian website Chowk. ... Physical therapy can help restore lost functionality in many people. ...

Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage: Will Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ...

"As far as the sixth century BCE Hindu physicians described ligaments, sutures, lymphatics, nerve plexus, fascia, adipose and vascular tissues, mucous and synovial membranes, and many more muscles than any modern cadaver is able to show. The doctors of pre-Christian India shared Aristotle's mistaken conception of the heart as the seat and organ of consciousness, and supposed that the nerves ascended to and descended from the heart. But they understood remarkabley well the processes of digestion – the different functions of the gastric juices, the conversion of chyme into chyle, and of this into blood. Anticipating Weisman by 2400 years, Atreya (ca 500 BCE) held that the parental seed is independent of the parent's body, and contains in itself, in miniature, the whole parental organism." A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue composed mainly of long, stringy collagen fibres. ... It has been suggested that suture material be merged into this article or section. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... A nerve plexus is a network of intersecting nerves. ... Fascia is specialized connective tissue layer which surrounds muscles, bones, and joints, providing support and protection and giving structure to the body. ... It has been suggested that Subcutaneous fat be merged into this article or section. ... Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem. ... Mucus is a slippery secretion of the lining of various membranes in the body (mucous membranes). ... Synovium means with egg, because the (synovial) fluid in joints that have a cavity between the bearing surfaces is like egg-white. ... A top-down view of skeletal muscle Muscle (from Latin musculus little mouse [1]) is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. ... With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual. ... Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to date Easter. ... Aristotle (Greek: AristotélÄ“s) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... The heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... In biology, an organ (Latin: organum, instrument, tool) is a group of tissues that perform a specific function or group of functions. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Gastric juice is a strong acidic liquid, pH 1 to 3, which is close to being colourless. ... Chyme is the liquid substance found in the stomach before passing through the pyloric valve and entering the duodenum. ... Chyle is a milky fluid (bodily fluid) consisting of lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids (FFAs). ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Charles Weissmann (born 14 October 1931, Budapest, Hungary) is a Hungarian-born Swiss molecular biologist. ... An Atreya (आत्रेय) is a descendant of Atri, one of the great Hindu sages (rishis) whose accomplishments are detailed in the Puranas. ...

"Sushruta laid down elaborate rules for preparing an operation, and his suggestion that they would be sterilized by fumigation is one of the earliest known efforts at antiseptic surgery. Both Sushruta and Charaka mention the use of medicinal liquors to produce insensibility to pain. In 927 CE two surgeons trepanned the skull of a Hindu king, and made him insensitivie to the operation by administering a drug." It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sushruta Samhita. ... Sterilization is a surgical technique leaving a male or female unable to procreate. ... Fumigation is a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous pesticides to suffocate or poison the pests within. ... An antiseptic solution of iodine applied to a cut Antiseptics (Greek αντί, against, and σηπτικός, putrefactive) are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction. ... For a village in Greece, see Charaka (Laconia), Greece Charaka, sometimes spelled Caraka, (perhaps 1st or 2nd century) is one of the founders of Ayurveda. ... A distilled beverage is a liquid preparation meant for consumption containing ethyl alcohol (ethanol) purified by distillation from a fermented substance such as fruit, vegetables, or grain. ... 18th century French illustration of trepanation Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is a form of surgery in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases, though in the... It has been suggested that temporal fenestra be merged into this article or section. ... For other meanings, see Drug (disambiguation). ...

"In the time of Alexander, says Garrison, 'Hindu physicians and surgeons enjoyed a well-deserved reputation for superior knowledge and skill' and even Aristotle is believed by some students to have been indebted to them." For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

"Lord Ampthill concludes that medieval and modern Europe owes its system of medicine directly to the Arabs, and through them to India." Sir Arthur Oliver Villiers Russell, 2nd Baron Ampthill GCSI GCIE BA (19 February 1869–7 July 1935) was the son of the 1st Baron Ampthill. ... An Arab (Arabic: ) is a member of a complexly defined ethnic group who identifies as such on the basis of one or more of either genealogical, political, or linguistic grounds. ...

Physics

Further information: Indian physics

A number of Indian theories on physics have attracted the attention of Indologists. Veteran Australian Indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham has concluded that: Since antiquity, human beings have sought to understand the workings of nature: why unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different materials have different properties, the character of the universe such as the form of the Earth and the behavior of celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon... Indologist is a derivative of the word indology, which refers to study of India, particularly ancient India. ... Professor Arthur Llewellyn Basham was a historian with the Australian National University in Canberra. ...

"They were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics."

Atomism

Further information: Indian atomism

The concept of the atom in ancient India derives from the classification of the material world in five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification existed since Vedic times (c. 1500 BCE). The elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow. In natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements - atoms. ... For other uses, see Atom (disambiguation). ... Ancient India may refer to: the ancient History of India, which generally includes the ancient history of the whole Indian subcontinent the legendary Kingdoms of Ancient India in Sanskrit literature the Iron Age Mahajanapadas the Middle kingdoms of India of Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages Category: ... For Wikipedias categorization projects, see Wikipedia:Categorization. ... Chinese (Wu Xing) Japanese (Godai) Earth (地) | Water (水) | Fire (火) | Air / Wind (風) | Void / Sky / Heaven (空) Hinduism (Tattva) and Buddhism (Mahābhūta) Vayu / Pavan — Air / Wind Agni / Tejas — Fire Akasha — Aether Prithvi / Bhumi — Earth Ap / Jala — Water Bön New Zealand “The Four Elements” redirects here. ... The term Indian philosophy may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought, including: Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Sikh philosophy Carvaka atheist philosophy Lokayata materialist philosophy Tantric religious philosophy Bhakti religious philosophy Sufi religious philosophy Ahmadi religious philosophy Political and military philosophy such as that of Chanakya... The Vedic period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the history of India when the sacred Vedic Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas were composed. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... For other uses, see Fire (disambiguation). ... Look up air in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Chinese Wood (木) | Fire (火) | Earth (土) | Metal (金) | Water (水) Hinduism and Buddhism The Pancha Mahabhuta (The Five Great Elements) Vayu/Pavan (Air/Wind) Agni/Tejas (Fire) Akasha (Aether) Prithvi/Bhumi (Earth) Ap/Jala (Water) Aether (also spelled ether) is a concept used in ancient and medieval science as a substance. ...

Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from parama (ultimate or beyond) and anu (atom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today. Palpation is a method of examination in which the examiner feels the size or shape or firmness or location of something (of body parts when the examiner is a health professional). ... Atomic energy is an outdated phrase which can mean a number of things related to energy produced by atoms: In the late- 19th century through the early- 20th century, it was often used to describe the particles ejected by radioactive elements (especially radium). ...

The 6th century BCE Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. (7th century BC - 6th century BCE - 5th century BCE - other centuries) (600s BCE - 590s BCE - 580s BCE - 570s BCE - 560s BCE - 550s BCE - 540s BCE - 530s BCE - 520s BCE - 510s BCE - 500s BCE - other decades) (2nd millennium BCE - 1st millennium BCE - 1st millennium) The 5th and 6th centuries BCE were... Kanada (also transliterated as Kanad and in other ways; Sanskrit कणाद) was a Hindu sage who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. ... Kātyāyana (c. ... Media:Example. ... Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... The philosopher Socrates about to take poison hemlock as ordered by the court. ...

Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage: Will Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ...

"Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. The Jains more nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; Udayana taught that all heat comes from the sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye." This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... This is a discussion of a present category of science. ... Kanada (also transliterated as Kanad and in other ways; Sanskrit कणाद) was a Hindu sage who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. ... Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika, (Sanskrit: वैशॆषिक)is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. ... This article is under construction. ... ‎ Democritus (Greek: ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace around 460 BC). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Heat (disambiguation) In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another as a result of a difference in temperature. ... Udayana also known as Udyanacharya lived in 10th century, near Darbhanga, Bihar state, India. ... Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE) was an Indian philosopher who founded one of the main Advaita Vedanta schools, the Bhāmatī school (named after his commentary on Shankaras Brahmasūtrabhāşya), and whose work was an important forerunner of the Navya-Nyāya system of thought. ... Sir Isaac Newton FRS (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. ...

Light

Further information: Theories about light

In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th – 5th century BCE, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Samkhya, also Sankhya, (Sanskrit: सांख्य, IAST: Sāṃkhya - Enumeration) is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. ... Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika, (Sanskrit: वैशॆषिक)is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. ... (7th century BC - 6th century BCE - 5th century BCE - other centuries) (600s BCE - 590s BCE - 580s BCE - 570s BCE - 560s BCE - 550s BCE - 540s BCE - 530s BCE - 520s BCE - 510s BCE - 500s BCE - other decades) (2nd millennium BCE - 1st millennium BCE - 1st millennium) The 5th and 6th centuries BCE were... (6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Demotic becomes the dominant script of ancient Egypt Persians invade Greece twice (Persian Wars) Battle of Marathon (490) Battle of Salamis (480) Athenian empire formed and falls Peloponnesian War... In natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements - atoms. ...

According to the Vaisheshika school, motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun". The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... Prism splitting light High Resolution Solar Spectrum Sunlight in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. ...

Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric solar system of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun. Events March 1 - Pope Symmachus makes Antipope Laurentius bishop of Nocera in Campania. ... Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. ... Heliocentric Solar System Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel) In astronomy, heliocentrism is the idea that the sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Major features of the Solar System (not to scale; from left to right): Pluto, Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, the asteroid belt, the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars. ... “Gravity” redirects here. ... Āryabhatīya, an astronomical treastise, is the Magnum Opus and only extant work of the 5th century Indian Mathematician, Aryabhatta. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... The Sun (Latin: ) is the star at the center of the Solar System. ...

The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles. A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Dignāga (5th century AD), was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Dharmakirti (circa 7th century), was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. ... The 7th century is the period from 601 - 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... In natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements - atoms. ... In modern physics the photon is the elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena. ...

Technology

Chemistry and metallurgy

Main article: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

Ancient India’s development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities. Ayas. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ...

Metallurgy has remained central to all civilizations, from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, and later. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that the: A Blacksmith, the father of the modern metallurgist. ... Central New York City. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... Electric phosphate smelting furnace in a TVA chemical plant (1942) Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of extractive metallurgy. ... For other uses, see Mesopotamia (disambiguation). ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists, geographers and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing Anatolia (the Asian portion of modern Turkey), the Levant (modern Israel/Palestine, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Georgia, Armenia, and... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

"Indian and the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron." The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the old Persian homeland, and beyond in Western Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. ... Traditional target arrow and replica medieval arrow. ...

The ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the Gupta period around the 5th century stands by the side of Qutub Minar World heritage site in Delhi. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible until iron and steel was discovered a few decades before. Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Used cutlery: a plate, a fork and knife, and a drinking glass. ... Gupta is a surname of Indian origin. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... At 72. ... A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a specific site (such as a forest, mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city) that has been nominated and confirmed for inclusion on the list maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 State... For other uses, see Delhi (disambiguation). ... metre or meter, see meter (disambiguation) The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units. ... A tonne or metric ton (symbol t), sometimes referred to as a metric tonne, is a measurement of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... The steel cable of a colliery winding tower. ...

An influential Indian metallurgist and alchemist was Nagarjuna (b. 931). He wrote the treatise Rasaratnakara that deals with preparations of rasa (mercury) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy in the land. Extraction of metals such as silver, gold, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise. For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Nagarjuna was an Indian metallurgist and alchemist, born at Fort Daihak near Somnath in Gujarat in 931. ... General Name, Symbol, Number mercury, Hg, 80 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 6, d Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 200. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Properties and uses of metals be merged into this article or section. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Standard atomic weight 107. ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Standard atomic weight 118. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... Iron ore (Banded iron formation) Manganese ore Lead ore Gold ore An ore is a volume of rock containing components or minerals in a mode of occurrence which renders it valuable for mining. ...

Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell. ... Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ... Kailasanatha Temple Ellora is an ancient village 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra famous for its magnificent rock cut architecture comprising of Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina cave temples and monasteries built between the 6th and 10th century A.D. These structures were excavated...

Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage: Will Durant William James Durant (November 5, 1885–November 7, 1981) was an American philosopher, historian, and writer. ...

"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India." Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ... Look up dye in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Tanned leather in Marrakech This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... A collection of decorative soaps used for human hygiene purposes. ... Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany. ... In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. ... This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... Calcination is the process of heating a substance to a high temperature, but below its melting or fusing point, to bring about thermal decomposition or a phase transition in its physical or chemical constitution. ... יחכיטכיגיגיוגקאטגקעיגקDistillation is a method of separating chemical substances based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Fixation in alchemy refers to a process by which a previously volatile substance is transformed into a form (often solid) that is not affected by fire. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Heat (disambiguation) In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another as a result of a difference in temperature. ... Anesthesia or anaesthesia (see spelling differences) has traditionally meant the condition of having the perception of pain and other sensations blocked. ... For other uses, see Sleep (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Properties and uses of metals be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Salt (disambiguation). ... A chemical compound is a chemical substance of two or more different chemically bonded chemical elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ... An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. ... King Porus (also Raja Puru), was the King of Pauravaa, a Kingdom in Punjab located between the Jhelum and the Chenab (in Greek, the Hydaspes and the Acesines) rivers in the Punjab and dominions extending to Hyphasis[1]. Its capital may have been near the current city of Lahore [2... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists, geographers and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing Anatolia (the Asian portion of modern Turkey), the Levant (modern Israel/Palestine, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Georgia, Armenia, and... World map showing the location of Europe. ... Damascus steel is a steel used in Middle Eastern swordmaking from about 1100 to 1700 AD. Damascus swords were of legendary sharpness and strength, and were apocryphally claimed to be able to cut through more ordinary European swords and even rock. ... An Arab (Arabic: ) is a member of a complexly defined ethnic group who identifies as such on the basis of one or more of either genealogical, political, or linguistic grounds. ... For information about all peoples of Iran, see Demographics of Iran. ...

Civil engineering and architecture

Main article: Indian architecture

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization

India’s urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan, where planned urban townships existed 5000 years ago. From then on, Indian architecture and civil engineering continued to develop, and was manifestated temples, palaces and forts across the Indian peninsula and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala, literally "the art of constructing". This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The // (c. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Location of Harappa in the Indus Valley. ... Section of the dome of Florence Cathedral. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) For other uses, see Temple (disambiguation). ... The quintessential medieval European palace: Palais de la Cité, in Paris, the royal palace of France. ... Fortifications (Latin fortis, strong, and facere, to make) are military constructions designed for defensive warfare. ...

During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia. Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Lion Capital of Asoka, erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. ... Major ethnic groups in Pakistan and surrounding areas, in 1980. ... Media:Example. ... The Buddhas of Bamyan (Pashto: د بودا بتان په باميانو کې De Buda butan pe bamiyano ke, Persian: تندیس‌های بودا در باميان tandis-ha-ye buda dar bamiyaan) were two monumental statues of standing Buddhas carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley of central Afghanistan, situated 230 km (143 miles) northwest of Kabul at an altitude... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ...

On the east, Buddhism took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian Khmer heritage. A silhouette of Buddha at Ayutthaya, Thailand. ... This article is about the Korean peninsula and civilization. ... Aerial view of Angkor Wat The main entrance to the temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the Naga causeway Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. ... The Khmer people are the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 13. ...

In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Konark, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram. Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ... Kailasanatha Temple Ellora is an ancient village 30 km from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra famous for its magnificent rock cut architecture comprising of Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina cave temples and monasteries built between the 6th and 10th century A.D. These structures were excavated... , Khajuraho (Hindi खजुराहो) is a village in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, located in Chhatarpur District, about 385 miles (620 kilometres) southeast of Delhi, the capital city of India. ... This article or section cites very few or no references or sources. ... The Mahabodhi Temple is a Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, the location where Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, attained enlightenment. ... , Sanchi is a small village in India, located 46 km north east of Bhopal, and 10 km from Besnagar and Vidisha in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. ... The Brihadisvara temple (also spelled Brahadeeswarar temple) is an ancient Hindu temple located at Thanjavur in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. ... Shore Temple, rescued from the sea Mahabalipuram (Tamil:மகாபலிபுரம்) (also known as Mamallapuram) is a town in Kancheepuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ...

Production technology

Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into merchandise of trade, commerce and export. A number of travelers and historians (including Megasthanes, Ptolemy, Faxian,Xuanzang, Marco Polo, Al Baruni and Ibn Batuta) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians. In marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to a market that might satisfy a want or need. ... It has been suggested that Commerce be merged into this article or section. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Megasthenes (c. ... A medieval artists rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; ca. ... Faxian(Chinese: ; pinyin: ; also romanized as Fa-Hien or Fa-hsien) (ca. ... A portrait of Xuanzang Xuanzang (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Hsüan-tsang; CantoneseIPA: jyn4tsɔŋ1; CantoneseJyutping: jyun4zong1) was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler and translator that brought up the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period. ... Marco Polo (September 15, 1254 – January 8, 1324) was a Venetian trader and explorer who gained fame for his worldwide travels, recorded in the book Il Milione (The Million or The Travels of Marco Polo). ... Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta (February 24, 1304 - 1377) was a Moroccan Berber traveller and explorer. ...

Shipbuilding and navigation

Main article: Indian maritime history

Further information: Lothal and Indus Valley Civilization: Trade

The science of shipbuilding and navigation were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from coastal regions, traded with several nations across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, even China and South America, and across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia. A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship. India has had a maritime history dating back around 5,000 years. ... Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. ... The // (c. ... Men from Francisco de Orellanas expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro, to be used in the search for food Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. ... Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... Look up Bay of Bengal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Java (Indonesian, Javanese, and Sundanese: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia, and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. ... Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470,000 km²) and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two larger islands, Borneo and New Guinea, are partially in Indonesia). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Kalimantan. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... The Arabian Sea (Arabic: بحر العرب; transliterated: Bahr al-Arab) is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somalia... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Ajanta takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra(N. lat. ...

Around 500 CE, sextants and mariner’s compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the Bombay Gazetteer (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word MATSYA-YANTRA ("fish-machine"), which Molesworth calls "mariner's compass". A sextant is a measuring instrument generally used to measure the angle of elevation of a celestial object above the horizon. ... A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the Earth. ... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem No official anthem specific to England — the anthem of the United Kingdom is God Save the Queen. See also Proposed English National Anthems. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Do you mean: Lt-Gen George Molesworth (1890-1968) Nigel Molesworth, the protagonist of the Molesworth series of books written by Geoffrey Willans, with cartoons by Ronald Searle Molesworth, the town in Huntingdonshire, UK This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise...

Fine arts

Main articles: Indian art and Indian painting

Music had a divine character and the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati, is always shown holding a veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with the "bansuri", (flute) — a musical instrument which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace. A miniature, Kishengarh, Jaipur, Rajasthan Indian cave art at Bhimbetka The vast scope of the art of India intertwines with the cultural history, religions and philosophies which place art production and patronage in social and cultural contexts. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Woman playing the Veena. ... This article is about the Hindu deity. ... The bansuri (Hindi: ) is a transverse alto flute of India, made of a single length of bamboo with six or seven open finger holes. ... St. ...

Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. Pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered in India in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In relatively recent times, rock paintings and carvings had significantly developed, and many such carvings have been found dating to the period of Emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, they depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya. For building painting, see painter and decorator. ... Bhimbetka is a place in Madhya Pradesh where the earliest known traces of human life in India were found. ... Allegiance: Magadhan Empire Rank: Emperor Succeeded by: Dasaratha Maurya Reign: 273 BC-232 BC Place of birth: Pataliputra, India Battles/Wars Kalinga War Emperor Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: अशोक(:); IAST transliteration: , pronunciation: ) (304 BC–232 BC) (Imperial Title:Devanampiya Piyadassi ie He who is the beloved of the Gods who, in... Bamiyan province is one of the thirty_four provinces of Afghanistan. ... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. ... Media:Example. ... This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... Shiva (IAST: , also spelled Siva; Hindi, Shiv) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. ... Ganesha (Sanskrit: ; ;  , also spelled Ganesa or Ganesh) is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in Hinduism[8]. Although he is known by many other attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. ... In Hinduism, Surya (Devanagari: सूर्य, sÅ«rya) is the chief solar deity,one of the Adityas, son of Kasyapa and one of his wife Aditi[1] ,in Nordics Tyr he is said to be the son of Dyaus Pitar. ...

Games and sports

Several games now familiar across the world originated in India: chess, ludo, snakes and ladders, and playing cards. The epic Mahabharata (c. 500 BCE) narrates an incident where a game called chaturanga was played between two groups of warring cousins. In some form or the other, the game continued to evolve into chess. H. J. R. Murry, in his book A History of Chess, concluded that "chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century CE". The Encyclopædia Britannica states, "we find the best authorities agreeing that chess existed in India before it is known to have been played anywhere else". Chess is a recreational and competitive game for two players. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Snakes and Ladders, sometimes called Chutes and Ladders, is a classic childrens board game played between 2 or more players on a playing board with numbered grid squares. ... For the Russian group of artists, see Jack of Diamonds (artists). ... For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... Chaturanga. ... Chess is a recreational and competitive game for two players. ... The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ...

The game of cards also developed in ancient India. Abul Fazal was a scholar in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar. His book, Ain-e-Akbari, which mirrors life of that time, records game of cards is of Indian origins. The Buddha games list, which dates back to the 6th or 5th century BCE, is the earliest list of games known. The Ain-e-Akbari is a detailed document recording the administration of emperor Akbars empire written by Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak, it also contains details of Hindu beliefs and practices as well as a history of India. ... The Buddha games list is a list of games which it is reputed that Gautama Buddha said that he would not play. ...

Indian martial arts have been practiced for millennia. In particular, Kalaripayattu is native to the South Indian state of Kerala. Kalaripayattu consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind. The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Pehlwani, Kalarippayattu, Vajra Mushti and Gatka. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the two Union Territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... , Kerala ( ; Malayalam: കേരളം; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. ...

See also

• Indian logic
• History of measurement systems in India
• History of mathematics
• History of astronomy
• Science and technology

The development of logic in India dates back to the analysis of inference by Aksapada Gautama, founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy, probably in the first or second centuries BCE, and so stands as one of the three original traditions of logic, alongside the Greek and Chinese traditions. ... Various indigenous systems of measurement have been developed and employed in India over the ages. ... For a list of biographies of mathematicians, see list of mathematicians. ... Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ...

References

• Haug, Martin and Basu, Major B. D. (1974). The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrifical Prayers. ISBN 0-404-57848-9
• Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd edition. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 0691006598
• Kak, Subhash C. (2000). 'Birth and Early Development of Indian Astronomy'. In Selin, Helaine (2000). Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy (303-340). Kluwer, Boston. ISBN 0-7923-6363-9
• Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - from the Babylonians to the Maya. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-83718-8
• Thurston, Hugh (1994). Early Astronomy. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-94107-X
• Blavatsky, H. P. (1877). 'Science. Chapter I', Isis Unveiled.
• Kak, Subhash C. (2003). Indian physics: Outline of Early History, ArXiv.
• Malhotra, Rajiv and Patel, Jay (2003-2005). History Of Indian Science & Technology.

Subhash Kak (सुभाष काक) (born March 26, 1947, Srinagar, Kashmir) is Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering and Professor in the Asian Studies and Cognitive Science Programs at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. ... Jean-François Millet Le Semeur (The Sower) Simon & Schuster logo, circa 1961. ... arXiv (pronounced archive, as if the X were the Greek letter χ) is an archive for electronic preprints of scientific papers in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science and quantitative biology which can be accessed via the Internet. ...

External links

• Amazing Sciences from India
• Online course material for InSIGHT, a workshop on traditional Indian sciences for school children conducted by the Computer Science department of Anna University, Chennai, India.
• Traditional Knowledge systems
• Science and technology update from India