This article is part of the series on: Image File history File links Rmn-military-header. ... Military of ancient Rome (Portal) 800 BC–AD 476 The Military of ancient Rome (known to the Romans as the militia) relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city of Rome to the end of the Western Roman Empire. ...

Structural history

Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)

Roman navy (fleets, admirals)

Campaign history

Lists of Wars and Battles

Decorations and Punishments

Technological history

Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)

Personal equipment

Political history

Strategy and tactics

Infantry tactics

Frontiers and fortifications (Limes, Hadrian's Wall)

Praetorian Guardsmen with curved oval scuta.

Bronze edge from a Roman scutum.

Sub-rectangular scuta. Note the curved, semi-cylindrical shape and the metal boss fitted in the middle.

Scutum (pl. scuta) is the Latin word for "shield", although it has in modern times come to be associated with the rectangular, semi-cylindrical body shield carried by ancient Roman Legionnaires. The shield's curved shape covered the wielder's front and sides, affording excellent protection. The branches of the Roman military at the highest level were the Roman army and the Roman navy. ... The Roman army is the set of land-based military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military. ... This is a list of both unit types and ranks of the Roman army from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Roman Empire. ... This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion. ... Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... // Manius Acilius Glabrio -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC) -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91) -- Titus Aebutius Helva -- Aegidius -- Lucius Aemilius Barbula -- Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) -- Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus -- Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC) -- Flavius Aëtius -- Lucius Afranius (consul) -- Sextus Calpurnius Agricola -- Gnaeus Julius Agricola -- Flavius Antoninus -- Marcus... Roman trireme, a warship, 31 BC. Note the bank of oars (two on the hidden side), the square-rigged sails, the steering oars, the tower on deck, the ram at the prow, the ballistae and the Greek fire. ... Roman trireme, a warship, 31 BC. Note the bank of oars (two on the hidden side), the square-rigged sails, the steering oars, the tower on deck, the ram at the prow, the ballistae and the Greek fire. ... The history of ancient Rome - originally a city-state of Italy, and later an empire covering much of Eurasia and North Africa from the ninth century BC to the fifth century AD - was often closely entwined with its military history. ... The following is a List of Roman wars fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date. ... The following is a List of Roman battles (fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire), organized by date. ... As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted a carrot and stick approach to military, with an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry and likewise a range of punishments for the punishment of military transgressions. ... The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. ... Roman military engineering is that Roman engineering carried out by the Roman Army - almost exclusively by the Roman legions for the furthering of military objectives. ... Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. ... Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. ... List of ancient Roman triumphal arches (By modern country) // France Orange Reims: Porte de Mars Saint Rémy de Provence: Roman site of Glanum Saintes: Arch of Germanicus Greece Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki Hadrians Arch, Athens Italy It has been suggested that List of Roman arches in Rome be... For the one-off TV Drama, see Roman Road (TV Drama) A Roman road in Pompeii. ... Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way. ... Root directory at Military history of ancient Rome Romes military was always tightly keyed to its political system. ... The strategy of the Roman Military encompasses its grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals, a process of diplomacy backed by threat of military action, and a dedication to the military of part of its production and resources... robert galusha is mad ass fucking hot Root directory at Strategy of the Roman military Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment, formation and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. ... Map of all the territories once occupied by the Roman Empire, along with locations of limes Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire. ... The limes Germanicus, 2nd century. ... // Hadrians Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of Great Britain. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Praetorian Guard of Augustus - 1st century. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 640 KB) Bronze edge from a Roman scutum (shield). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 640 KB) Bronze edge from a Roman scutum (shield). ... Assorted ancient Bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling. ... Download high resolution version (1932x1288, 436 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (1932x1288, 436 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The word cylinder has several meanings. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... A shield is a protective device, meant to intercept attacks. ... In geometry, a rectangle is a defined as a quadrilateral polygon in which all four angles are right angles. ... A right circular cylinder An elliptic cylinder In mathematics, a cylinder is a quadric surface, with the following equation in Cartesian coordinates: This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder (a = b). ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... // Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other gear designed to protect the wearers body or clothing from injury by electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, and in sports, martial arts, combat, etc. ...

History

In the days of the kings of Rome, Roman soldiers often wielded round shields called aspidai (άσπιδαι) by the Greeks, in the style of Greek hoplites. There were seven traditional Kings of Rome before the establishment of the Roman Republic. ... An aspis (Ancient Greek Ασπις, IPA [aspis]) is the generic term for the word shield. ... The hoplite was a heavy infantryman that was the central focus of warfare in Ancient Greece. ...

It is unknown when exactly the scutum came into use. The scutum of the Roman Republic was oval and semi-cylindrical, and was probably derived from shields used by the Italian Celts or from the Greek Thureos. The oval scutum is depicted on the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in Rome, the Aemilius Paullus monument at Delphi, and there is an actual example found at Kasr el-Harit in Egypt. Gradually the oval scutum evolved into the rectangular (or sub-rectangular) type of the early Roman Empire. Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus Roman provinces on the eve of the assassination of Julius Caesar, c. ... This oval, with only one axis of symmetry, resembles a chicken egg. ... A Celtic cross. ... A thureos was a large oval shield which was commonly used in Hellenistic armies from the 3rd BC on. ... Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, a member of the noble Ahenobarbus family, accompanied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been pardoned by Julius Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus (229 BC-160 BC) was a Roman general and politician. ... Delphi (Greek , [ðeÌžlˈfi]) is an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in a valley of Phocis. ... Kasr el-Harit is a small town located in the heart of the Egyptian desert near the Nile. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ...

By the end of the 3rd century AD the rectangular scutum seems to have disappeared. Fourth century archaeological finds (especially from the fortress of Dura-Europos) indicate the subsequent use of oval or round shields which were not semi-cylindrical, but were either dished (bowl-shaped) or flat. Roman artwork from the end of the 3rd century till the end of Antiquity show soldiers wielding oval or round shields. (2nd century - 3rd century - 4th century _ other centuries) Events The Sassanid dynasty of Persia launches a war to reconquer lost lands in the Roman east. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek: αρχαίος, archaios, combining form in Latin archae-, ancient; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Fortifications (Latin fortis, strong, and facere, to make) are military constructions designed for defensive warfare. ... The Temple of Bel at Dura-Europos Dura-Europos (Fort Europos)[1] was a Hellenistic and Roman walled city built on an escarpment ninety meters above the banks of the Euphrates river. ... Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries. ... Late Antiquity is a rough periodization (c. ...

The word "scutum" survived the old Roman Empire and entered the military vocabulary of the Byzantine Empire. Even in the 11th century the Byzantines called their armoured soldiers skutatoi (Grk. σκυτατοι). Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Heavy infantry refers to heavily armed and armoured ground troops, as opposed to medium or light infantry, in which the warriors are relatively lightly-armoured. ... Medieval Greek (Μεσαιωνική Ελληνική) is a linguistic term that describes the fourth period in the history of the Greek language. ...

Structure

The Republican Scutum

The Greek writer Polybius described the early scutum in his Histories: "The Roman panoply consists firstly of a shield (scutum), the convex surface of which measures two and a half feet in width and four feet in length, the thickness at the rim being a palm's breadth. It is made of two planks glued together, the outer surface being then covered first with canvas and then with calf-skin. Its upper and lower rims are strengthened by an iron edging which protects it from descending blows and from injury when rested on the ground. It also has an iron boss (umbo) fixed to it which turns aside the most formidable blows of stones, pikes, and heavy missiles in general". Polybius (c. ... // Polybius’ Histories were originally written in 40 volumes of which we have completely only the first 5. ... A panoply is a complete suit of armour. ... Look up convex in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... An adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together. ... Look up Canvas in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Vellum (from the Old French Vélin, for calfskin[1]) is a sort of parchment, a material for the pages of a book or codex, characterized by its thin, smooth, durable properties. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A modern recreation of a mid-17th century company of pikemen. ...

Caesar in his Gallic Wars records legionaries wielding "shields made of bark or interwoven wickers, which they had hastily covered over with skins" in place of wooden scuta, because of "the shortness of time". Gaius Julius Caesar [1] (Latin pronunciation ; English pronunciation ; July 12 or July 13, 100 BC or 102 BC – March 15, 44 BC), was a Roman military and political leader and one of the most influential men in world history. ... An 18th century edition of Commentarii de Bello Gallico Commentarii de Bello Gallico (literally Commentaries on the Gallic War in Latin) is an account written by Julius Caesar about his nine years of war in Gaul. ... For other meanings of bark, see Bark (disambiguation). ... A wickerwork scratching post A wicker balloon basket capable of holding 16 passengers. ...

The Imperial Scutum

The oval scutum was only gradually replaced with the rectangular scutum. Curved, rectangular scuta were constructed largely of strips of overlapping bentwood, possibly set in place by steaming over a curved form (in much the same way as a modern plywood chair is made) although no direct evidence survives to prove this. This meant the shield was strong and yet light enough to be carried over long distances. The best surviving example, from Dura-Europos in Syria, was 1.06 m (42in) in height, a chord of 0.66 m (26in), with a distance around the curve of 0.86 m (34in), and a thickness of 5 mm to 6 mm. Bentwood is a term used to describe furniture made by steaming wood and bending it into curved shapes and patterns and is most often used in the production of rocking and cafe chairs. ... Toy constructed from plywood. ... The Temple of Bel at Dura-Europos Dura-Europos (Fort Europos)[1] was a Hellenistic and Roman walled city built on an escarpment ninety meters above the banks of the Euphrates river. ... A chord of a curve is a geometric line segment whose endpoints both lie on the curve. ...

The curved shape of the shield allowed it to absorb (and deal) heavy blows, while the sides sloped away from the attacker, allowing arrows and enemy blows to glance off without transmitting the full force of the impact to the legionary sheltering behind it. The boss in the centre of the shield (the umbo), constructed either from copper alloy (brass or bronze) or iron, was itself used offensively, being heavy and dense enough to stun or wind an opponent (easing the legionnaire's subsequent strike with his gladius). General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... For other uses, see Brass (disambiguation). ... Assorted ancient Bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... This article is about the sword. ...

The 4th century Missorium of Valentinian. Note the soldiers' oval shields and their designs.

Legionaries would typically advance alternately with the scutum and then (with the scutum partially raised, crowding and blocking the opponent) with the gladius. The edges of the shield were also bound in brass or rawhide, to reinforce and protect them, and may also have been used offensively Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 604 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1400 × 1390 pixel, file size: 297 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Missorium of Valentinian. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 604 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1400 × 1390 pixel, file size: 297 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Missorium of Valentinian. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ... Flavius Valentinianus, known in English as Valentinian I, (321 - November 17, 375) was a Roman Emperor (364-375). ... A Legionary is a member of a legion. ... This article is about the sword. ... For other uses, see Brass (disambiguation). ... Rawhide is a hide or animal skin that has not been exposed to tanning and thus is much lighter in color than treated animal hides. ...

Scuta of the early empire are popularly depicted as being red in colour, although there is little proof that all scuta were painted red. However, one magnificiently well-preserved rectangular scutum found at Dura-Europos was coloured red and emblazoned with geometric patterns, winged figures and animal motifs. Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 625–750 nm. ... The Temple of Bel at Dura-Europos Dura-Europos (Fort Europos)[1] was a Hellenistic and Roman walled city built on an escarpment ninety meters above the banks of the Euphrates river. ... Geometry (from the Greek words Ge = earth and metro = measure) is the branch of mathematics first introduced by Theaetetus dealing with spatial relationships. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Look up motif in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

There is likewise little evidence for the designs painted on scuta, although depictions from Trajan's Column suggest that eagle-wing and thunderbolt motifs were used. Trajans Column is a monument in Rome raised by Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Senate. ... Genera Several, see below. ... Typical cartoon representations of thunderbolts A thunderbolt is a traditional expression for a discharge of lightning or a symbolic representation thereof. ...

The 5th century Notitia Dignitatum, which catalogues military units throughout the empire, is an excellent guide to late Roman shield designs. It also confirms that shield patterns of the later empire were used to designate individual units. However the sometimes elaborate designs would not have lasted long on campaign, and individual soldiers would have had to make do with giving their shields a quick coat of paint, in their regiments' official colours (McDowall, 1994). The Notitia Dignitatum is a unique document of the Roman imperial chanceries. ... The Dominate was the despotic last of the two phases of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. ... A military unit is an organisation within an armed force. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... British regiment A regiment is a military unit, consisting of a variable number of battalions - commanded by a colonel. ...

In the Field

Combat Uses

An early imperial legionary shield array.

According to Polybius the scutum gave Roman soldiers an edge over their Carthaginian enemies during the Punic Wars: "Their arms also give the men both protection and confidence owing to the size of the shield". Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (3456 × 2304 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (3456 × 2304 pixel, file size: 1. ... Roman legionaries, 1st century. ... This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. ... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage. ...

The Roman writer Suetonius recorded an anecdote of the heroic Centurion Cassius Scaeva, who fought in the Battle of Dyrrachium: "with one eye gone, his thigh and shoulder wounded, and his shield bored through in a hundred and twenty places, {he} continued to guard the gate of a fortress put in his charge...{he} boarded the ship and drove the enemy before him with the boss of his shield." Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... An anecdote is a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident. ... “Heroine” redirects here. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Combatants Optimates Populares Commanders Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Gaius Julius Caesar Strength 45,000 15,000 Casualties Unknown 1,000 The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was one of a series of contests between Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus that ended with Pompeys... Italian Full rigged ship Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large watercraft capable of offshore navigation. ...

The Roman writer Cassius Dio in his Roman History described Roman against Roman in the Battle of Philippi: "For a long time there was pushing of shield against shield and thrusting with the sword, as they were at first cautiously looking for a chance to wound others without being wounded themselves". Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The shape of the scutum allowed packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields to provide an effective barrier against missiles. The most novel (and specialized, for it afforded negligible protection against other attacks) use was the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"), which added legionnaires holding shields from above to protect against descending missiles (such as arrows or objects thrown by defenders on walls). A century of Roman legionaires in testudo formation, as portrayed in the Rome: Total War computer game, copyright 2004 Creative Assembly and Activision In Ancient Roman warfare, the testudo or tortoise formation was a formation utilized commonly by the Roman Legions during battles, particularly sieges. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

The testudo performed during a siege, as shown on Trajan's Column. Note the faint eagle-wing and thunderbolt motifs on the scuta.

Dio gives an account of a testudo put to good use by Mark Anthony's men while on campaign in Armenia: "One day, when they fell into an ambush and were being struck by dense showers of arrows, {the legionaries} suddenly formed the testudo by joining their shields, and rested their left knees on the ground. The barbarians...threw aside their bows, leaped from their horses, and drawing their daggers, came up close to put an end to them. At this the Romans sprang to their feet, extended their battle-line...and confronting the foe face to face, fell upon them...and cut down great numbers". Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (3696 × 2464 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 533 pixelsFull resolution (3696 × 2464 pixel, file size: 1. ... A century of Roman legionaires in testudo formation, as portrayed in the Rome: Total War computer game, copyright 2004 Creative Assembly and Activision In Ancient Roman warfare, the testudo or tortoise formation was a formation utilized commonly by the Roman Legions during battles, particularly sieges. ... A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by force or attrition, often accompanied by an assault. ... Trajans Column is a monument in Rome raised by Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Senate. ... Genera Several, see below. ... Typical cartoon representations of thunderbolts A thunderbolt is a traditional expression for a discharge of lightning or a symbolic representation thereof. ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... barbarians is a mini-series on the history channel which tells the story of four of the most barbariac tribes of the early and late middle ages. ... This image depicts a typical bow, as made by the Huns, lying against a tree. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern species of the genus Equus. ... Bold text This article is about the weapon. ... Military tactics (Greek: TaktikÄ“, the art of organizing an army) are the collective name for methods for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. ...

However the testudo was not invincible, as Dio also gives an account of a Roman shield array being defeated by Parthian knights and horse archers at the Battle of Carrhae: "For if {the legionaries} decided to lock shields for the purpose of avoiding the arrows by the closeness of their array, the {knights} were upon them with a rush, striking down some, and at least scattering the others; and if they extended their ranks to avoid this, they would be struck with the arrows". Parthia[1] (Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was a civilization situated in the northeast of modern Iran, but at its height covering all of Iran proper, as well as regions of the modern countries of Armenia, Iraq, Georgia, eastern Turkey, eastern Syria, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Kuwait, the Persian Gulf... A cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος katafraktos, plural katafraktoi) was a form of heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Greeks and Latin-speaking peoples. ... A horse archer (or horsed archer, mounted archer) is a cavalryman armed with a bow. ... Combatants Roman Republic Parthia Commanders Marcus Licinius Crassus †, Publius Crassus † Surena Strength 35,000 Roman legionnaires 4,000 cavalry 4,000 light infantry 9,000 cavalry archers 1,000 Cataphract Casualties 20,000 dead 10,000 captured 4,000 wounded Minimal The Battle of Carrhae was a decisive battle fought... An arrow is a pointed projectile that is shot with a bow. ... A cataphract (from the Greek κατάφρακτος katafraktos, plural katafraktoi) was a form of heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Greeks and Latin-speaking peoples. ... Battle of Wołodarka Polish infantry charging enemy positions during the Polish Defensive War A charge is a maneuver in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed to engage in close combat. ...

Special Uses

Cassius Dio describes scuta being used to aid an ambush: "Now Pompey was anxious to lead {Oroeses} into conflict before he should find out the number of the Romans, for fear that when he learned it he might retreat...he kept the rest behind...in a kneeling position and covered with their shields, causing them to remain motionless, so that Oroeses should not ascertain their presence until he came to close quarters." An ambush is a long established military tactic in which an ambushing force uses concealment to attack an enemy that passes its position. ... Pompey, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir [1] (Classical Latin abbreviation: CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2], Gnaeus or Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (September 29, 106 BC–September 29, 48 BC), was a distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman republic. ... Look up retreat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

A selection of shield designs from the Notitia Dignitatum, each shield representing a different unit.

Dio also notes the use of the scutum as a tool of psychological warfare during the capture of Syracuse: "Accordingly some of the gates were opened by {legionaries}, and as soon as a few others had entered, all, both inside and outside, at a given signal, raised a shout and struck their spears upon their shields, and the trumpeters blew a blast, with the result that utter panic overwhelmed the Syracusans." Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... The Notitia Dignitatum is a unique document of the Roman imperial chanceries. ... The U.S. Department of Defense defines psychological warfare (PSYWAR) as: The planned use of propaganda and other psychological actions having the primary purpose of influencing the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behavior of hostile foreign groups in such a way as to support the achievement of national objectives. ... Syracuse (Italian Siracusa, Sicilian Sarausa, Greek , Latin Syracusae) is an Italian city on the eastern coast of Sicily and the capital of the province of Syracuse. ... The Brama Młyńska in Stargard Szczeciński one of two water gates in Europe. ... A battle cry is a yell or chant taken up in battle, usually by members of the same military unit. ... Hunting spear and knife, from Mesa Verde National Park. ... From The Roman Army, by John Wilkes. ...

In 27BC the emperor Augustus was awarded a golden shield by the Senate for his part in ending the civil war and 'restoring' the Republic, according to the Res Gestae Divi Augusti. The shield, the Res Gestae says, was hung outside the Curia Julia, serving as a symbol of the Princeps' "valour, clemency, justice and piety". For other uses, see Augustus (disambiguation). ... General Name, Symbol, Number gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d Appearance metallic yellow Standard atomic weight 196. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Battle of Actium. ... Res Gestae Divi Augusti, (Latin: The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments. ... The Curia, inside the Forum The Curia Hostilia (Latin, Hostilian Court) was the favorite meeting place of the Roman Senate in the Forum Romanum at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, near the well of the Comitia. ... The Latin word Princeps (plural: principes) means the first. This article is devoted to a number of specific historical meanings the word took, by far the most important of which follows first. ... Courage is the ability to confront fear in the face of pain, danger, uncertainty or intimidation. ... A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it. ... J.L. Urban, statue of Lady Justice at court building in Olomouc, Czech Republic Justice concerns the proper ordering of things and persons within a society. ... Pietas, as virtue of the Roman Emperor Herennius Etruscus, celebrated with the instruments of cult, such as patera and lituus. ...

The 5th century writer Vegetius added that scuta helped in identification: "Lest the soldiers in the confusion of battle should be separated from their comrades, every cohort had its shields painted in a manner peculiar to itself. The name of each soldier was also written on his shield, together with the number of the cohort and century to which he belonged." Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Vegetius (Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus) was a celebrated military writer of the 4th century. ... A cohort (from the Latin cohors, plural cohortes) is a fairly large military unit, generally consisting of one type of soldier. ... Roman numerals are a numeral system originating in ancient Rome, adapted from Etruscan numerals. ... Centuria (Latin plural Centuriae) is a Latin substantive rooting in centum a hundred, denoting units consisting of (originally, approximatively) a 100 men. ...

However since Vegetius was not a military man and his works freely mixed the present with the dim and distant past, we must take his descriptions with a pinch of salt. Shields in Vegetius' day were used to distinguish between units, though, contrary to his claim here, there is little evidence that this was true of the earlier empire. An officer is a member of a military, naval, or if applicable, other uniformed services who holds a position of responsibility. ... De Re Militari (Latin On military matters) was a treatise of late Roman warfare that became a military guide in the middle ages. ...

Other Uses of the Word

The name Scutum has been adopted as one of the 88 modern constellations, and by UK luxury clothing maker Aquascutum, which became famous in the 19th century for its waterproof menswear. Hence the name, which in Latin means "water shield". Scutum (Latin for shield) is a small constellation. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An Aquascutum scarf, showing the Club Check colours Aquascutum is a UK-based clothing and apparel manufacturer. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Waterproof fabrics are usually natural or synthetic fabrics that are laminated to or coated in some sort of permanently waterproofing material, such as rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PU), silicone elastomer, and wax. ...

References

• James, Simon (2004). Excavations at Dura-Europos 1928--1937. Final Report VII. The Arms and Armour and Other Military Equipment. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2248-3.
• McDowall, Simon (1994). Late Roman Infantryman AD236-565. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855324190
• Robinson, H.R. (1975). The Armour of Imperial Rome. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-219-4.

External links

• Details of the scutum

• Ancient originals can be seen on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web museum [1]

• Lacus Curtius Online (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home.html) for online translations of Polybius, Cassius Dio and other antique authors

• The Internet Classics Archive (http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.html) for online translation of Caesar's Gallic War

Military of ancient Rome Portal