A second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue (L1). Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas. “Native Language” redirects here. ... An international auxiliary language (sometimes abbreviated as IAL or auxlang) is a language used (or to be used in the future) for communication between people from different nations who do not share a common native language. ... Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ...

It is quite possible that the first language a person learns may no longer be their dominant language, that is, the one he or she uses most or the one with which he or she is most comfortable in. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children move, with or without their family (because of immigration or international adoption), to a new language environment. Language attrition is the loss of a first or second language or a portion of that language by either a community or an individual. ... International adoption refers to adopting a child from a foreign country. ...

Age

According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age at which the language was learned. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the Critical Period Hypothesis. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. ... Eric Heinz Lenneberg (1921 - 1975) was a linguist who pioneered ideas on language acquisition and cognitive psychology more generally about innateness. ... The Critical Period Hypothesis refers to a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. ...

In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam (1992) found that around the age of 6 and 7 seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of very few actual errors, have enough errors that would set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some of the subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the age of onset (AO). “The age of 6 or 8 does seem to be an important period in distinguishing between near-native and native-like ultimate attainment... More specifically, it may be suggested that AO interacts with frequency and intensity of language use” (Hyltenstam, 1992, p. 364).-1...

Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2003) modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular. Furthermore, they discuss a number of cases where a native-like L2 was acquired during adulthood.

Similarities and differences between L2 and L1

Speed

Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully native-like in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language, with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures. A vocabulary is a set of words known to a person or other entity, or that are part of a specific language. ... For the rules of English grammar, see English grammar and Disputes in English grammar. ...

Stages

Acquiring a second language occurs in systematic stages. Much evidence has been gathered to show that basic sounds, vocabulary, negating phrases, forming questions, using relative clauses, and so on are developed. This development is independent from input (we do not hear nor read language in this order), independent from learning situation (in the classroom or on the street), and is generally applicable across a spectrum of learners (from different language backgrounds). This is similar to the learning stages that babies go through when acquiring the first language: babbling (bababa), vocabulary (milk then later milk drink), negation (no play), question forming (where she go), and so on. In rhetoric, where the role of the interpreter is taken into consideration as a non-negligible factor, negation bears a much wider range of functions and meanings than it does in logic, where the interpretation of signs for negation is constrained by axioms to a few standard options, typically just... A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun. ...

Correction

Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not. In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language.

Depth of knowledge

Learners in the first or second language have knowledge that goes beyond the input they received, in other words, the whole is greater than the parts. Learners of a language are able to construct correct utterances (e.g. phrases, sentences, and questions) that they have never seen or heard before.

Success

Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners will be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all first language learners will learn a first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or stuck as it were with ungrammatical items. (Fossilization occurs when language errors become a permanent feature. See Canale & Swain (1980), Johnson (1992), Selinker (1972), and Selinker and Lamendella (1978)). The difference between learners may be significant. Finally, as noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete native-like control of the second language.

Theories of second language acquisition (SLA)

Main article: Second language acquisition

The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen (1982) as part of his Monitor Theory. According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as Second Language Acquisition or SLA. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with language education. ... Stephen Krashen, professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, is a highly acclaimed linguist, educational researcher and activist. ... The Monitor Theory refers to five hypotheses developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen to explain second language acquisition (SLA): the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. ...

Research in SLA focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a knowledge of second language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults (Spada & Lightbown, p. 115).

SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms, responsible for much of human learning, process language. Psychology (from Greek: Literally knowledge of the soul (mind)) is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ... Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Linguistic theories

Universal grammar

Universal grammar (UG) was initially a theory of first language acquisition. Noam Chomsky (1968) argued children acquire a first language before they are able to accomplish simpler tasks. Children with intellectual disabilities acquire language. The acquired language is greater than the input received. Input is often degenerate, with false starts, slips of the tongue, and grammatical errors, still children acquire the language. Not all parents correct errors in their young children, still children overcome those errors. Due to these, Chomsky argued that we must have an innate device that is able to do all languages. Children, on hearing the language around them, set this device to work in this language. One of the features of this language device is the claim that there is a critical period for acquiring a first language. Thus, adolescents and adults would no longer have access to this device to enable them to acquire a second language. Still, proponents of UG argue that the device is still there, it is simply no longer able to assist in the SLA without interference from the first language - that is, the student will see the L2 through the L1. Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans. ... Avram Noam Chomsky (Hebrew :אברם נועם חומסקי Yiddish: אברם נועם כאמסקי) (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, political activist, author, and lecturer. ...

Monitor theory

While UG is predominantly a theory of first language acquisition, the monitor theory (Krashen, 1982) is predominantly a theory for SLA. As we noted above, Krashen discusses the difference between acquisition and learning. This is the base of the monitor theory. To acquire an L2, according to this model, the learner needs to focus on messages and meanings. Krashen also proposed the natural order hypothesis whereby the acquisition of language is in developmental stages. The comprehensible input hypothesis argues that acquisition takes place when the student is exposed to meaningful and a variety of input ([i+1] = input beyond the current stage is necessary). Another component of the model is the affective filter hypothesis which argues that the student must be motivated to learn the new language. The Monitor Theory refers to five hypotheses developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen to explain second language acquisition (SLA): the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. ...

Much of Krashen's model has been criticized, for example, the vagueness of the model, or the lack of empirical studies. However, many students and teachers feel the difference between learning and acquisition: for many frustrated learners, the rules were studied, yet spontaneous language does not flow.

Foreign language

In pedagogy, a distinction is often made between 'second language' and foreign language, the latter being learned for use in an area where that language is not generally spoken. Arguably, English in countries such as India, the Scandinavian countries, and the Netherlands can be considered a second language for many of its speakers, because they learn it young, speak it fluently, and use it constantly. The same can be said for French in the Arab Maghreb Union, except for Libya, although--like for English in the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands--French is not an official language in any of these Arab countries. The same can also be said for the rest of sub-Saharan Francophone Africa, except that, in all Francophone sub-Saharan African countries other than Mauritania, French is an official language. A foreign language is a language not spoken by the indigenous people of a certain place: for example, English is a foreign language in Japan. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... For other uses, see Scandinavia (disambiguation). ... The Arab Maghreb Union is a Pan-Arab trade agreement aiming for economic and political unity in northern Africa. ... “Arab States” redirects here. ... French in Africa is present and spoken by many people. ...

In China, however, English would be considered a foreign language due to the lack of a number of characteristics, such as historical links, media, opportunities for use, similar vocabulary, and common script. Although Egypt, like most of the other Arab Persian Gulf states, were once British colonies, English, like in China, is a foreign language in Egypt (see Education in Egypt). Languages Arabic and other minority languages Religions Islam, Christianity, Druzism and Judaism Arab woman from Ramallah wearing traditional dress in 1915. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... The Egyptian educational system is highly centralized, and is divided into three stages: Basic Education - (Arabic:Marhalet Al-Taaleem Al-Asassi) Primary Stage Preparatory Stage Secondary Education (Marhalet ElTaaleem Al-Thanawi) Post-Secondary education Since the extension of the free compulsory education law in 1981 to include the preparatory phase...

Like English in those countries mentioned in the previous paragraph, French would be considered a foreign language in Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Hungary, Lithuania and Poland, even though all are member states of the Francophonie. French would be considered a foreign language in Romania, Lebanon and Moldova as well. This is despite Romanian and French being romance languages (unlike Chinese and English, which come from two different language families). This is also despite Romania and Moldova being the only two countries in the world where Romanian is an official language at the federal level, Romania's historical links to France, and both Roumanophone countries' membership in the Francophonie. For Lebanon, French would be considered a foreign language, even though most of its universities operate in either that language or English, French is an administrative language and--like Romania--Lebanon has historical ties to France and is a Francophonie member state. Motto Égalité, Complémentarité, Solidarité Members and participants of La Francophonie. ... The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family, comprising all the languages that descend from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... An official language is a language that is designated as official by a state, or other legally-defined territory, usually by legislation. ...

See also

• Computer-assisted language learning
• English language learning and teaching
• First language
• Foreign language influences in English
• Heritage speaker
• ILR scale
• Language attrition
• Language education
• Language transfer
• Multilingualism
• Second language acquisition
• Education in Lebanon
• Education in Moldova
• Romanian Educational System

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. ... See also: Language education and Second language acquisition ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages) and EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers of other languages. ... “Native Language” redirects here. ... While many words enter English as slang, not all do. ... A heritage speaker is someone who learned a certain language in childhood, but has subsequently used it only in a limited set of contexts (often only with family. ... The Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale is a set of descriptions of abilities to communicate in a language. ... Language attrition is the loss of a first or second language or a portion of that language by either a community or an individual. ... Language education refers to the teaching and learning of a language. ... Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, cross-linguistic interference or interference) is the effect of a speaker or writers first language (L1) on the production or perception of his or her second language (L2). ... -1... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with language education. ... All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. ... // The lowest grade (mark) in Moldovan educational system is 1, the highest is 10. ... According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Romanian Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research (Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării - MEC)]. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. ...

Further reading

• Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47.
• Johnson, H. (1992). Defossilizing. ELT Journal, 46/2, 180-9.
• Mangubhai, F. (2006). What do we know about learning and teaching second languages: Implications for teaching. Asian EFL Journal 8(3)^[1]
• Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-31.
• Selinker, L. and Lamendella, J. (1978). Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 3, 143-91.

References

• Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• Hyltenstam, K. (1992). Non-native Features of Near-native Speakers: On the Ultimate Attainment of Childhood L2 Learners. In R.J. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals (pp. 351-367). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
• Hyltenstam, K & Abrahamsson, N (2003). Maturational Constraints in SLA. In Doughty & Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Blackwell.
• Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English.
• Spada, N. and Lightbown, P.M. (2002). Second Language Acquisition. In Schmitt, N. An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. London: Arnold.