Sense of community (or psychological sense of community) is a concept in social psychology (or more narrowly, in community psychology), which focuses on the experience of community rather than its structure, formation, setting, or other features. Sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, and others have theorized about and carried out empirical research on community, but the psychological approach asks questions about the individual's perception, understanding, attitudes, feelings, etc. about community and his or her relationship to it and to others' participation - indeed to the complete, multifaceted community experience. Social psychology is often conceived to be the study of how individuals perceive, influence, and relate to others. ... Community Psychology lies at the intersection of Social Psychology, Political Science, and Community Development. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθρωπος, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Empirical research is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. ... Psychology (Gk: psyche, soul or mind + logos, speech) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind, brain, and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... PSYCHOLOGY In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... Understanding is a psychological state in relation to an object or person whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to be able to deal adequately with that object. ... Attitude is a key concept in psychology. ... It has been suggested that Feeling be merged into this article or section. ...

In his seminal 1974 book, psychologist Seymour B. Sarason proposed that Psychological Sense of Community become the conceptual center for the psychology of community, asserting that it "is one of the major bases for self-definition." Quite a few studies have followed, and in addition to some treatment that has been characterized as fuzzy and atheoretical (cf., Pretty, 1990), some impressive theoretical and empirical development has emerged around this concept, which by 1986 had come to be regarded as a central overarching value for Community Psychology (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (the link is to a full 1974 calendar). ... Seymour Sarason is Professor of Psychology Emeritus at Yale University, where he taught from 1945 to 1989. ... This article needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Among theories of Sense of Community proposed by psychologists, McMillan & Chavis's (1986) is by far the most influential, and is the starting point for most of the recent research in the field. It is discussed in detail below. A psychologist is a researcher and/or a practitioner of psychology. ...

Definitions

For Sarason, Psychological Sense of Community is “the perception of similarity to others, an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure” (1974, p. 157). PSYCHOLOGY In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... Interdependence is a dynamic of being mutually responsible to and dependent on others. ...

McMillan & Chavis (1986) define Sense of Community as “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together.” Personal commitment is an interaction dominated by obligations. ...

Gusfield (1975) identified two dimensions of community, territorial and relational. The relational dimension of community has to do with the nature and quality of relationships in that community, and some communities may even have no discernible territorial demarcation, as in the case of a community of scholars working in a particular specialty, who have some kind of contact and quality of relationship, but may live and work in disparate locations, perhaps even throughout the world. Other communities may seem to be defined primarily according to territory, as in the case of neighborhoods, but even in such cases, proximity or shared territory cannot by itself constitute a community; the relational dimension is also essential. A territory is a defined area (including land and waters), usually considered to be a possession of an animal, person, organization, or institution. ... Please see Relational database Relational algebra This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... A neighbourhood (CwE) or neighborhood (AmE) is a geographically localized community located within a larger city or suburb. ...

Factor analysis of their urban neighborhoods questionnaire yielded two distinct factors which Riger and Lavrakas (1981) characterized as “social bonding” and “physical rootedness,” very similar to the two dimensions proposed by Gusfield. Factor analysis is a statistical technique that originated in psychometrics. ... A questionnaire (also known as self-administered survey) is a type of survey handed out in paper form usually to a specific demographic to gather information in order to provider better service or goods. ...

Beneficial antecedents found in early work

Early work on Psychological Sense of Community was based on neighborhoods as the referent, and found a relationship between Psychological Sense of Community and greater participation (Hunter, 1975; Wandersman & Giamartino, 1980), perceived safety (Doolittle & McDonald, 1978), ability to function competently in the community (Glynn, 1981), social bonding (Riger & Lavrakas, 1981), social fabric (strengths of interpersonal relationship) (Ahlbrandt & Cunningham, 1979), greater sense of purpose and perceived control (Bachrach & Zautra, 1985), and greater civic contributions (charitable contributions and civic involvement) (Davidson & Cotter, 1986). These initial studies lacked a clearly articulated conceptual framework, however, and none of the measures developed were based on a theoretical definition of Psychological Sense of Community. This article is in need of attention. ... Charitable contribution deductions for United States Federal Income Tax purposes are defined in section 170(c) of the Internal Revenue Code as contributions to or for the use of certain listed nonprofit enterprises. ... Used in research to outline possible courses of action or present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. ... A theoretical definition gives the meaning of a word in terms of the theories of a specific discipline. ...

Primary theoretical foundation: McMillan and Chavis

McMillan & Chavis's (1986) theory (and instrument) are the most broadly validated and widely utilized in this area in the psychological literature. They prefer the abbreviated label "Sense of Community," and propose that Sense of Community is composed of four elements. The word validation has several related meanings: In general, validation is the process of checking if something satisfies a certain criterion. ...

Four elements of Sense of Community

There are four elements of "Sense of Community" according to the McMillan & Chavis theory:

• Membership
• Influence
• Integration and fulfillment of needs
• Shared emotional connection

Membership

The first aspect of Sense of Community is membership in that community. Reviewing relevant literature on particular dimensions of membership, McMillan & Chavis identified five attributes:

• Boundaries
• Emotional safety
• A sense of belonging and identification
• Personal investment
• A common symbol system

Boundaries are marked by such things as language, dress, and ritual, indicating who belongs and who does not. Especially in groups that have boundaries that are less than clearly obvious, deviants or outsiders may be held in lower regard or even denounced or punished. The authors acknowledge that "boundaries" is the most troublesome feature of the "membership" portion of the definition, but point out that "While much sympathetic interest in and research on the deviant have been generated, group members' legitimate needs for boundaries to protect their intimate social connections have often been overlooked" (p. 9). The word Boundary has a variety of meanings. ... Men and women wearing suits, an example of one of the many modern forms of clothing (from the 1937 Chicago Woolen Mills catalog) Clothing is optional, in its broadest sense, as coverings for the torso and limbs as well as coverings for the hands (gloves), feet (socks, shoes, sandals, boots... A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. ...

The other four attributes of membership are emotional safety (or, more broadly, security; willingness to reveal how one really feels), a sense of belonging and identification (expectation or faith that I will belong, and acceptance by the community), personal investment (cf., cognitive dissonance theorists), and a common symbol system. Regarding this fifth attribute, the authors quote Nisbet & Perrin, asserting that: To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Acceptance, in spirituality, mindfulness, and human psychology, usually refers to the experience of a situation without an intention to change that situation. ... Cognitive dissonance is the perception of incompatibility between two cognitions, which can be defined as any element of knowledge, attitude, emotion, belief or value, or a goal, plan, or interest. ...

Understanding common symbol systems is a prerequisite to understanding community. "The symbol is to the social world what the cell is to the biotic world and the atom to the physical world.... The symbol is the beginning of the social world as we know it" (Nisbet & Perrin, 1977, p. 47). The word ecology is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ... Properties In chemistry and physics, an atom (Greek άτομον meaning indivisible) is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties. ...

The authors then go on to cite examples in the literature of various important functions that symbols perform at a number of social levels. At the level of the neighborhood, for example, symbols might be found in its name, a landmark, a logo, or in architectural style; the integrative role of national symbols is mentioned, such as the flag, holidays, a national language; citing Jung (1912), the authors even offer basic archetypes as symbols uniting humankind. Groups use symbols such as rituals, ceremonies, rites of passage, forms of speech, and dress to indicate boundaries of who is or is not a member. A name is a label for a thing, person, place, product (as in a brand name) and even an idea or concept, normally used to distinguish one from another. ... Originally, a landmark literally meant a geographic feature used by explorers and others to find their way back or through an area. ... A logotype (from the Greek λογότυπο), commonly known as a logo, is the graphic element of a trademark or brand, which is set in a special typeface and/or font, or arranged in a particular, but legible, way. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, αρχιτεκτων, a master builder, from αρχι- chief, leader and τεκτων, builder, carpenter) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. ... The tricolour flag of France A flag is a piece of coloured cloth flown from a pole or mast, usually for purposes of signalling or identification. ... The word holiday has related but different meanings in English-speaking countries. ... Carl Jungs autobiographical work Memories , Dreams and Reflections, Fontana edition Carl Gustav Jung (July 26, 1875 – June 6, 1961) (IPA:) was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology. ... An archetype is an idealised model of a person, object, or concept from which similar instances are derived, copied, patterned, or emulated. ... A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. ... A ceremony is an activity, infused with ritual significance, performed on a certain occasion. ... Shan boy undergoing Poy Sang Long initiation A rite of passage is a ritual that marks a change in a persons social or sexual status. ...

In 1996, McMillan updated and expanded what he had written in 1986, and with regard to membership, placed greater emphasis on the "spirit" of community deriving from "the spark of friendship" (p. 315). The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath. ... Friendship is a relationship which involves mutual knowledge, esteem, and affection. ...

Influence

McMillan & Chavis (1986) point out that influence in a community is bidirectional: members of a group must feel empowered to have influence over what a group does (otherwise they would not be motivated to participate), and group cohesiveness depends upon the group having some influence over its members. The authors cite several studies that suggest that these two apparently contradictory forces can be at work simultaneously, and assert that: This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ...

People who acknowledge that others' needs, values, and opinions matter to them are often the most influential group members, while those who always push to influence, try to dominate others, and ignore the wishes and opinions of others are often the least powerful members (p. 11). The concept of Needs is often used to refer to things that people must have. ... Value is worth in general, and it is thought to be connected to reasons for certain practices, policies, actions, beliefs or emotions. ... Look up Opinion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary An opinion is a persons ideas and thoughts towards something. ...

The authors refer to a review by Lott & Lott (1965) in which the major finding was a positive correlation between group cohesiveness and pressure to conform. On the other hand, the authors also discuss the "consensual validation" research, which "demonstrates that the force toward uniformity is transactional -- that it comes from the person as well as from the group" (McMillan & Chavis, 1986, p. 11), providing members with reassurances that they are experiencing things similarly to other group members. In probability theory and statistics, correlation, also called correlation coefficient, is a numeric measure of the strength of linear relationship between two random variables. ... In psychology, conformity is the degree to which members of a group will change their behavior, views and attitudes to fit the views of the group. ...

In 1996, McMillan discusses this element primarily from the standpoint of "trust," pointing out that it is the salient ingredient in influence (p. 318). He also summarizes the earlier (1986) discussion of the role of power and influence within a community in a single sentence: "This process [of bidirectional influence] occurs all at the same time because order, authority, and justice create the atmosphere for the exchange of power" (1996, p. 319). Look up trust in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Because too much data can cause “cognitive clutter”, individuals need a system to enable them to rank available data in terms of its immediate importance. ... In politics, authority (Latin auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to potestas and imperium) is often used interchangeably with the term power. However, their meanings differ. ... Lady Justice - allegory of Justice as woman with sword and with book - statue at court building. ...

Integration and fulfillment of needs

McMillan & Chavis employ the word "needs" here (as is commonly used among psychologists, though perhaps somewhat inaccurately) to mean more than survival and other needs as such, but to include also that which is desired and valued. Members of groups are seen as being rewarded in various ways for their participation, which Rappaport (1977) calls person-environment fit. Cited research indicates that this would include the status of being a member, as well as the benefits that might acrue from the competence of other members. "Shared values" is discussed as a concept that can give direction to the issue of which "needs" beyond survival will be pursued. The concept of Needs is often used to refer to things that people must have. ... Value is worth in general, and it is thought to be connected to reasons for certain practices, policies, actions, beliefs or emotions. ...

Sarason (1974, p. 157) originally conceived nearly this same construct as "an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them." Interdependence is a dynamic of being mutually responsible to and dependent on others. ...

McMillan's 1996 update cites several studies showing that perceived similarity to others and homogeneity contribute to group interaction and cohesion, and McMillan confessed that he had become convinced he should give greater weight to the "search for similarities" as an "essential dynamic" of community development (p. 320-321). He also recharacterized this element as "creating an economy of social trade" (p. 322). A fruit stand at a market. ...

Shared emotional connection

McMillan & Chavis's summary statement on shared emotional connection includes the assertion that "it seems to be the definitive element for true community" (1986, p. 14). They mention the role of shared history (participation in or at least identification with it). In 1996 (p. 322) McMillan adds that "shared history becomes the community's story symbolized in art" (in a very broad sense). McMillan & Chavis (1986) list seven important features of shared emotional connection, citing relevant research for each. Venus de Milo exhibited in the Louvre museum, France. ...

a. Contact hypothesis. Greater personal interaction increases the likelihood that people will become close.

b. Quality of interaction.

c. Closure to events. Ambiguous interaction and unresolved tasks inhibit group cohesiveness.

d. Shared valent event hypothesis. Increased importance of a shared event (i.e., a crises) facilitates a group bond.

e. Investment. Beyond boundary maintenance and cognitive dissonance, the community becomes more important to someone who has given more time and energy to it.

f. Effect of honor and humiliation on community members. Someone who has been rewarded in front of a community feels more attracted to that community, and if humiliated feels less attraction.

g. Spiritual bond. The authors admit that this quality is difficult to describe, but maintain that it is "present to some degree in all communities" (p. 14), and give the example of the concept of "soul" in the formation of a national black community in the U.S.

Cognitive dissonance is the perception of incompatibility between two cognitions, which can be defined as any element of knowledge, attitude, emotion, belief or value, or a goal, plan, or interest. ...

Dynamics within and between the elements

After defining the four elements in detail, McMillan & Chavis (1986) go on to discuss the dynamics within and between the elements. Some of the discussion of dynamics within the elements is similar enough to definitional points raised above that it does not seem necessary to go into furthur detail here except to mention two points. With regard to the first element of Sense of Community (membership), the authors argue that the five attributes of Membership (boundaries, emotional safety, sense of belonging and identification, personal investment, common symbol system; see above) fit together in a "circular, self-reinforcing way, with all conditions having both causes and effects" (p. 15), giving examples of causal and reinforcing influences among the attributes.

The dynamics within shared emotional connection are summarized by the following "heuristic" formulae proposed by the authors (p. 15):

Formula 1: Shared emotional connection = contact + high-quality interaction

Formula 2: High-quality interaction = (events with successful closure - ambiguity) x (event valence x sharedness of the event) + amount of honor given to members - amount of humiliation. Look up ambiguity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Dynamics between the elements are illustrated by the authors primarily through examples, as it is "difficult to describe [their] interworkings...in the abstract" (p. 16). The first example presented is in a university setting:

Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing, members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in the group). As the team continues to win, team members become recognized and congratulated (gaining honor and status for being members). Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence) (p. 16).

In their conclusion section, McMillan & Chavis suggest ways in which a well-defined, empirically validated understanding of Sense of Community might help creators and planners of programs of various kinds, including the positive impact of a high-quality community on processes that might normally unfold in a one-on-one context or in a context where the community dimension is largely ignored. Empirical research is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. ...

Chavis et al's Sense of Community Index (SCI), originally designed primarily in reference to neighborhoods, can be adapted to study other communities as well, including the workplace, schools, religious communities, communities of interest, etc. For the IBM collaboration software product, see IBM Workplace. ... American high school students in a school A school is most commonly a place designated for learning. ... Religion, sometimes used interchangeably with faith, is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the practices and institutions associated with such belief. ...

References

• Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. (1986). Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24-40.

• Chavis, D.M., & Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 635-642.

• Jung, C.G. (1912). The psychology of the unconscious. Leipzig, Germany: Franz Deutiche. (hardcover)

• Gusfield, J. R. (1975). The community: A critical response. New York: Harper Colophon.

• Lott, A.J. & Lott, B.E. (1965). Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: A review of relationships with antecedent and variables. Psychological Bulletin, 64, 259-309.

• McMillan, D.W. (1996). Sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(4), 315-325.

• McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.

• Nisbet, R. & Perrin, R.G. (1977). The Social Bond. New York: Knopf. (Out of print. See The Quest for Community.)

• Pretty, G. (1990). Relating psychological sense of community to social climate characteristics. Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 60-65.

• Rappaport, J. (1977). Community Psychology: Values, research, and action. New York: Rhinehart and Winston. (Out of print. See Handbook of Community Psychology.)

• Riger, S. & Lavrakas, P. (1981). Community ties patterns of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 55-66.

• Sarason, S.B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (Out of print. See American Psychology and Schools.)

• Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 405-407.

See also

"Community" in sociology: Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ...

• Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (Community and Society, Ferdinand Tönnies)
• Anomie, (The Division of Labor in Society, Émile Durkheim)
• Communitarianism, (The Spirit of Community, Amitai Etzioni)

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft are sociological categories introduced by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies for two normal types of human association. ... Ferdinand Tönnies (July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort (Eiderstedt) - April 9, 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist. ... For the band, see Anomie (band) Anomie, in contemporary English, means a condition or malaise in individuals, characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values. ... Emile Durkheim David Émile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 - November 15, 1917) is known as one of the originators of modern sociology. ... Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies began in the late 20th century, opposing aspects of liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. ... Amitai Etzioni (Born Werner Falk 4 January 1929 in Cologne, Germany) is an American sociologist, famous for his work on communitarianism. ...

External links

• Sense of community: A definition and theory

• Psychology Resources includes information about Community Psychology and related topics.

• [1] advice on events to meet neighbours