An engraving titled "Sepoy Indian troops dividing the spoils after their mutiny against British rule" gives a contemporary view of events from the British perspective.

Brutal execution of Indian soldiers who participated in the Indian rebellion of 1857 by British cannons

1857–1858 was a period of armed uprising and rebellions in mostly northern and central India against British colonial rule on the subcontinent. The war brought about the end of the British East India Company's regime in India, and led to a century of direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by Britain: the British Raj. The Sepoy Mutany of 1857 Source: [1] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... The Sepoy Mutany of 1857 Source: [1] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Image File history File links Brutal execution of Indian soldiers who participated in the Indian rebellion of 1857 by British canons. ... Image File history File links Brutal execution of Indian soldiers who participated in the Indian rebellion of 1857 by British canons. ... A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage A cannon is any large tubular firearm designed to fire a heavy projectile over a considerable distance. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... In general, the word colonial means of or relating to a colony. In United States history, the term Colonial is used to refer to the period before US independence. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... The British Raj is an informal term for the British colonial administration of most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, also included from 1886 was Burma. ...

The events of this period are known many Indians as the First War of Independence and the War of Independence of 1857 and to the British, and many western historians, variously as the Indian Mutiny, the Sepoy Mutiny, the Sepoy Rebellion, the Great Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857. Indian rebellion of 1857 is a modern name for the conflict.

The history of the rebellion is, to this day, an ongoing battle between two competing narratives, the history claimed by the British, who won the war, and the history claimed by the rebellious Indians, who were defeated. The fact that atrocities were perpetrated by both sides during the conflict only adds further to the controversy.

The British East India Company win the power of Diwani in the Bengal after winning the 'Battle' of Plassey in 1757. Their victory in the Battle of Buxar in 1764 won them the Nizamat of Bengal as well. soon after, the British East India Company began to vigorously expand its area of control in India. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... At various points in Indian history, the title of diwan has been associated with differing, though similar functions. ... A database query syntax error has occurred. ... The Battle of Plassey was a battle that took place on June 23, 1757, near Plassey or Palashee (পলাশী in Bengali), a small village on the Bhagirathi River (a distributary of the Ganges River) located just north of Kolkata and south of Murshidabad in India. ... 1757 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

In 1845 the Company managed to extended its control over Sindh province after a gruelling and bloody campaign(of Napier's 'Peccavi' fame). In 1848 the Second Anglo-Sikh War took place and the British East India Company gained control of the Punjab as well. In 1853 the leader of the Marathas, Nana Sahib was denied his titles and his pension was stopped. 1845 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Sindh (Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), resulted in the subjugation of the Sikh kingdom and absorption of the Punjab into lands controlled by the British East India Company. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (Meaning: Land of five Rivers) (also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Devanagari: पंजाब, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... 1853 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... Nana Sahib was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He was refused the pension that his father had been receiving from the British because he was adopted. ...

In 1854 Berar was annexed into the Company's domains. In 1856 the state of Awadh/Oudh was also annexed by the British East India Company. Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was told that he would be the last Emperor and the Mughal Empire would cease to exist after him. 1854 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Berar is a former province of British India, located in central India. ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862) aka Bahadur Shah Zafar (Zafar was his nom de plume, or takhallus, as an Urdu poet) was the last of the Mughal emperors in India. ... The Mughal Empire (Urdu: مغل باد شاہ, Mughal Baadshah, alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by the Turkic leader Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ...

Causes

This is a subject of much speculation and divided historical opinion. But quite undoubtedly, the rebellion had diverse religious, social and politico-economic causes. The sepoys (from sipahi, Hindi for soldier, used for native Indian soldiers) had their own list of grievances against the Company Raj, mainly caused by the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops. Other than Indian units of the Company's army, much of the resistance came from the old aristocracy, which in turn feared that under British rule they would become increasingly irrelevant and replaced by a new comprador class. A sepoy (from Persian سپاهی Sepâhi meaning soldier) was a native of India employed as a soldier in the service of a European power, usually of the United Kingdom. ...

Frictions

Due to missionary activity some Indians came to believe that the British intended to forcibly convert them to Christianity, a view which was perhaps not entirely unfounded, as the British religious fashion of the time was Evangelism, and many East India Company officers took it upon themselves to try to convert their Sepoys. This was strongly discouraged by the Company, which was aware of the attempts' potential to become a flashpoint, but in spite of official disapproval conversion attempts continued unabated. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... Evangelism is the preaching of the Christian Gospel, or by extension any other form of preaching or proselytizing. ...

The jewels of the royal family of Nagpur were publicly auctioned in Calcutta, a move that was seen as a sign of abject disrespect by the remnants of the Indian aristocracy. Nāgpur (meaning City of the Snakes) is a city located near the geographical center of India, in the state of Maharashtra. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ...

Indians were unhappy with the heavy-handed rule of the British East India Company which had embarked on a project of rather rapid occupation and westernisation. This included the outlawing of many religious customs, both Muslim and Hindu, which were viewed as uncivilized by the British. This caused outrage amongst the Indian population. The British abolished child marriage, Sati (the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their deceased husbands), female infanticide, and hunted down the Thuggees. Many of the Company's modernising efforts were viewed with automatic distrust; for example, it was feared that the railway, the first of which began running out of Bombay in the 1850s, was a demon. However, the common misconception that British undertook these changes in social system themselves is largely inaccurate, as there were many Indian reformers, notable among them Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who were really the driving force behind these reforms. In fact, one lesson learned by the British after 1857 was to not enact reforms, but to instead further strengthen social divides in order to maintain their supremacy; and also to appease the gentry, who had been major instigators in the 1857 revolt. After 1857, Zamindari (regional feudal officials) became more oppressive, the Caste System became more pronounced, and the communal divide between Hindus and Muslims became marked and visible, all due in great part to British efforts to keep Indian society divided. Westernisation is a process whereby traditional, long-established societies come under the influence of Western (European and somewhat American) culture in such matters as industry, technology, economics, lifestyle, food and moral and cultural values. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) is a believer in or follower of Islam. ... A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism, the predominant religious, philosophical and cultural system of Bharat (India). ... Child marriage is a practice in which the parents of a small child (even infants) arrange a future marriage with another childs parents. ... Sati may refer to any of the following: The Hindu Goddess Sati, daughter of Daksha and wife of Shiva A social practise in some parts of India in past centuries, often spelt Suttee The Buddhist Sati; see mindfulness. ... Infanticide is the practice of intentionally causing the death of an infant. ... Thuggee (or tuggee) (from the Sanskrit root sthag (Pāli, thak), to conceal, mainly applied to fraudulent concealment) was an Indian cult, operating from the 13th to the 19th centuries, worshipping Kali whose members were known as Thugs. ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Indian reformer Ram Mohan Roy died in Bristol, England, where this statue of him stands. ... The Zamindari System is a kind of feudal system, introduced by the Mughals to collect taxes from peasants. ... The word Caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race. ...

The justice system was inherently unfair to the Indians as can be expected from any foreign occupation. The official Blue Books — entitled "East India (Torture) 1855–1857" — that were laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and 1857, revealed that British officers were allowed an extended series of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimes against Indians. The East Indian company also practised financial extortion through heavy taxation. Failure to pay these taxes almost invariably resulted in appropriation of property. In some bicameral parliaments of a Westminster System, the House of Commons has historically been the name of the elected lower house. ...

The British policy of expansionism was also greatly disliked by the Indians. In eight years James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, had annexed a quarter of a million square miles (650,000 km²) of land to the British East India Company's territory. James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess and 10th Earl of Dalhousie (April 22, 1812–December 19, 1860) was a British statesman, and a colonial administrator in India. ... Governor-General (or Governor General) is a term used both historically and currently to designate the appointed representative of a head of state or their government for a particular territory, historically in a colonial context, but no longer necessarily in that form. ...

Economics

The British East India Company was a massive export company that was the force behind much of the colonization of India. The power of the British East India Company took nearly 150 years to build. As early as 1693, the annual expenditure in political "gifts" to men in power reached nearly 90,000 pounds. In bribing the Government, the British East India Company was allowed to operate in overseas markets despite the fact that the cheap imports of South Asian silk, cotton, and other products hurt domestic business. By 1767, the Company was forced into an agreement that is should pay 400,000 pounds into the National Exchequer annually. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... Events January 11 - Eruption of Mt. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was a joint-stock company of investors, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in India. ... 1767 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

By 1848, however, the East India Company's financial difficulties had reached a point where expanding revenue required expanding British territories in South Asia massively. The Government began to set aside adoption rights of native princes and began the process of annexation of more than a dozen independent Rajes between 1848 and 1854. In an article published in The New York Daily Tribune on July 28, 1857, Karl Marx notes that "... in 1854 the Raj of Berar, which comprise 80,000 square miles of land, a population from four to five million, and enormous treasures, was forcibly seized". 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1854 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... 1854 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

In order to consolidate and control these new holdings, a well-established army of 200,000 South Asians officered by 40,000 British soldiers dominated India by 1857. The last vestiges of independent Indian states had disappeared and the East India Company exported tons of gold, silk, cotton, and a host of other precious materials back to England every year. 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The land was reorganised under the comparatively harsh Zamindari system to facilitate the collection of taxes. In certain areas farmers were forced to switch from subsistence farming to commercial crops such as indigo, jute, coffee and tea. This resulted in hardship to the farmers and increases in food prices. The Zamindari System is a kind of feudal system, introduced by the Mughals to collect taxes from peasants. ... This article is about the color. ... Jute is a long, soft, shiny plant fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. ... Coffee beans and a cup of coffee Coffee as a drink, usually served hot, is prepared from the roasted seeds (beans) of the coffee plant. ... A hot cup of tea A tea bush. ...

Local industry, specifically the famous weavers of Bengal and elsewhere, also suffered under British rule. Tariffs were kept low, according to traditional British free-market sentiments, and thus the Indian market was flooded with cheap clothing from Britain. Indigenous industry simply could not compete, and where once India had produced much of England's luxury cloth, the country was now reduced to growing cotton which was shipped to Britain to be manufactured into clothing, which was subsequently shipped back to India to be purchased by Indians.

The Indians felt that the British were levying very heavy taxation on the locals. This included an increase in the taxation on land.

Policital Interference

If a landowner did not leave a male heir, the land became the property of the Company via the doctrine of lapse carried out by Lord Dalhousie and his successor, Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning. Lord Dalhousie used this doctrine to possess a number of Indian kingdoms, most notably those of Pune, Nagpur and Jhansi, causing the disenfranchised rulers of these kingdoms to join sides with the rebellious Indian troops. This applied to feudal lands as well as to the states. The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856. ... Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning (14 December 1812 - 17 June 1862), English statesman, Governor-General of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was the youngest child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, near London. ... Pune city, formerly Punavadi, Maharashtra state, western India, is situated at the junction of the Mula and Mutha rivers. ... Nāgpur (meaning City of the Snakes) is a city located near the geographical center of India, in the state of Maharashtra. ... Jhansi is a city of Uttar Pradesh state, India. ...

Sepoys

Sepoys were native Indian soldiers serving in the army of the East India Company under British officers trained in the East India Company College, the company's own military school in England. The presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal maintained their own army each with its own commander-in-chief. They fielded more troops than the official army of the British Empire. In 1857 there were 257,000 sepoys. A sepoy (from Persian سپاهی Sepâhi meaning soldier) was a native of India employed as a soldier in the service of a European power, usually of the United Kingdom. ... The East India Company College was from 1805 to 1858 the college of the British East India Company (EIC). ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu a former province of British India, with its capital at the Indian city of Madras (now Chennai): see Madras Presidency a type of fabric which first originated there. ... A database query syntax error has occurred. ... Commander-in-Chief (in NATO-lingo often C-in-C or CINC pronounced sink) is the commander of all the military forces within a particular region or of all the military forces of a state. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The Company also recruited Indians of other castes than the Brahmin and Rajputs; the latter is a traditional warrior caste in India. In 1856 sepoys were required to serve overseas during a war in Burma. Hindu tradition states that those who 'travel the black waters' will lose their caste and be outside the Hindu community. Sepoys were thus very displeased with their deployment to Burma. A Brahmin (less often Brahman) is a member of the Hindu priestly caste. ... A Rajput (from Sanskrit rāja-putra, son of a king) is a member of a prominent caste who live throughout northern and central India, primarily in the northwestern state of Rajasthan, although not all Rajputs find their origin in Rajasthan. ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

The sepoys were dissatisfied with various aspects of army life. Their pay was relatively low and after the British troops conquered Awadh and the Punjab, the soldiers no longer received extra pay for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions". However, they were not subject to the penalty of flogging as were the British soldiers. Sepoy soldiers found themselves constantly pitted against their countrymen in an army which the common soldiers increasingly began to feel was governed by wholly foreign influences. In a colonial setting, this is the prime breeding ground for a conflagration.

Into this conflagration, the Pattern 1853 Enfield (P/53) rifle was introduced into India. Its cartridge was covered by a greased membrane which was supposed to be cut by the teeth before the cartridges were loaded into the rifles. There was a rumour that the membrane was greased by cow or pig fat. This was offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers alike, who considered tasting beef or pork to be against their respective religious tenets. The British claimed that they had replaced the cartridges with new ones not made from cow and pig fat and tried to get sepoys to make their own grease from beeswax and vegetable oils but the rumour persisted. A new drill was also introduced in which the cartridge was not bitten with the teeth but torn with the hand: the sepoys argued that they might very well forget and bite. The Commander in Chief in India, General George Anson reacted to this crisis by saying, "I'll never give in to their beastly prejudices", and despite the pleas of his junior officers he did not compromise. 1853 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Enfield is the name of several places. ... Refusing to bite the cartridge was a turn of phrase used by the British in India of Native Indian solidiers (sepoys) who had mutinied in 1857. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Major-General George Anson (1797 – 1857) Born October 13, 1797 and died May 27, 1857 He was Colonel of the 55th (the Westmoreland) Regiment of Foot from December 12, 1856 until he died six months later. ...

Some began to spread the rumour of a prophecy that the Company's rule would end after a hundred years. Their rule in India had begun with the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The Battle of Plassey was a battle that took place on June 23, 1757, near Plassey or Palashee (পলাশী in Bengali), a small village on the Bhagirathi River (a distributary of the Ganges River) located just north of Kolkata and south of Murshidabad in India. ... 1757 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ...

Start of the war

The preceding months held tensions and several serious events but they failed to cause as big a conflagration as those at Meerut. Fires broke out near Calcutta on 22 January 1857. On 25 February 1857 the 19th Regiment mutinied at Behrampore and the regiment allowed one of its men, named Mangal Pande to advance with a loaded musket upon the parade-ground in front of a line and open fire on his superior officer; a battle ensued. On 31 March 1857 the 34th Regiment rebelled at Barrackpore. April saw fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... January 22 is the 22nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... February 25 is the 56th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Berhampore is the name of at least two places: Berhampore, India, in West Bengal (also sometimes spelt Behrampore) Berhampore, New Zealand, a suburb of Wellington There is also a Berhampur in Orissa, India This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the... March 31 is the 90th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (91st in Leap years), with 275 days remaining, as the final day of March. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Taj Mahal Ä€gra is a city on the Yamuna River in India, within the state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Map of India. ... Ambala is a small beautiful and a cosy town located on the border of states of Haryana and Punjab. ...

In March 1857, Mangal Pandey of the 34th Native Infantry attacked his British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. It is wrongly alleged by the british that the great Pandit was heavily intoxicated with Bhang at the time of this incident. General Hearsay, who says Pande was in some kind of "religious frenzy", ordered a jemadar to arrest him but the jemadar refused. Mangal Pande then turned the gun against himself and used his foot to try to pull the trigger to shoot himself. He failed and was captured, along with the jemadar he was hanged on 7 April. The whole regiment was dismissed as a collective punishment and because it was felt that they would harbour feelings against their superiors after this incident. The other sepoys thought of this as harsh punishment. Mangal Pandey (d. ... Bhang is a preparation derived from the leaf and flower of a male cannabis plant. ... Jemadar was a rank used in the British Indian Army, where it was the was the lowest rank for a Viceroys Commissioned Officer (VCO). ... April 7 is the 97th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (98th in leap years). ...

On 9 May, 85 troopers of the 3rd Light Cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. They were imprisoned, sentenced to ten years of hard labour, and stripped of their uniforms in public. It has been said that the town prostitutes made fun of the manhood of the sepoys during the night and this is what goaded them. May 9 is the 129th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (130th in leap years). ...

When the 11th and 20th native cavalry of the Bengal Army assembled in Meerut on 10 May, they broke rank and turned on their commanding officers. They then liberated the 3rd Regiment and attacked the European cantonment where they killed all the Europeans and Indian Christians they could find, including women and children, and burned the houses. The rebelling forces were then engaged by the remaining British forces in Meerut. Meerut had the largest percentage of British troops of any station in India: 2,038 European troops with twelve field guns versus 2,357 sepoys lacking artillery. Some commentators believe that the British forces could have stopped the sepoys from marching on Delhi, but the British commanders of the Meerut garrison were extraordinarily slow in reacting to the crisis. They did not even send immediate word to other British cantonments that a rebellion was in process. It seems likely that they believed they would be able to contain the Indians by themselves. A database query syntax error has occurred. ... May 10 is the 130th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (131st in leap years). ...

On 11 May the rebels reached Delhi, where they were joined by other Indians from the local bazaar, and attacked and captured the Red Fort (Lal Qila), killing five British, including a British officer and two women. Lal Qila was the residence of the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II and the sepoys demanded that he reclaim his throne. At first he was reluctant but eventually he agreed to the demands and became the leader of the rebellion. May 11 is the 131st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (132nd in leap years). ... Delhi (दिल्ली in Hindi and دیلی in Urdu) is a metropolis in India. ... A bazaar is a market, often covered, typically found in areas of Muslim culture. ... Agra Fort is located in Agra, India. ... The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several Wikipedia lists of incumbents. ... Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862) aka Bahadur Shah Zafar (Zafar was his nom de plume, or takhallus, as an Urdu poet) was the last of the Mughal emperors in India. ...

Support and Opposition

The rebellion now spread beyond the armed forces, but it did not result in a complete popular uprising as its leaders hoped. The Indian side was not completely unified. While Bahadur Shah Zafar was restored to the imperial throne there was a faction that wanted the Marhatta rulers to be enthroned as well, and the Awadhis wanted to retain the powers that their Nawab used to have.

The war was mainly centred in northern and central areas of India. Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi, Bareilly, Arrah and Jagdishpur were the main centres of conflict. The Bhojpurias of Arrah and Jagdishpur supported the Marhattas. The Marhattas, Rohillas and the Awadhis supported Bahadur Shah Zafar and were against the British. Delhi (दिल्ली in Hindi and دیلی in Urdu) is a metropolis in India. ... Lucknow is the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. ... Kānpur (known as Cawnpore before 1948) is the most populous city in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Jhansi is a city of Uttar Pradesh state, India. ... Bareilly is a city in Uttar Pradesh State in northern India on the Ramganga River. ... Arrah is a town in India, located 36 miles from Patna, in the state of Bihar. ... Arrah is a town in India, located 36 miles from Patna, in the state of Bihar. ...

There were calls for jihad by some leaders including the millenarian Ahmedullah Shah, taken up by the Muslims, particularly Muslim artisans, which caused the British to think that the Muslims were the main force behind this event. In Awadh, Sunni Muslims did not want to see a return to Shiite rule, so they often refused to join what they perceived to be a Shia rebellion. Jihad (ǧihād جهاد) is an Islamic term, from the Arabic root ǧhd (to exert utmost effort, to strive, struggle), which connotes a wide range of meanings: anything from an inward spiritual struggle to attain perfect faith to a political or military struggle to further the Islamic cause. ... Millenarianism or millenarism is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society after which all things will be changed in a positive (or sometimes negative or ambiguous) direction. ... Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Shi‘as (the adjective in Arabic is شيعى shi‘i; English has traditionally used Shiite) which mean follower in Arabic make up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%-35% of all Muslim. ...

In Thana Bhawan, the Sunnis declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer. In May 1857 the famous Battle of Shamli took place between the forces of Haji Imdadullah and the British. Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Emir (also sometimes rendered as Amir or Ameer, Arabic commander) is a title of nobility historically used in Islamic nations of the Middle East and North Africa. ... This article is about the month of May. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Many Indians supported the British, partly due to their dislike at the idea of return of Mughal rule and partly because of the lack of a notion of Indianness, These very forces were crucial to the British re-conquest of the independent areas. The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the capture of Delhi. The Gurkhas of Nepal continued to support the British as well. The Mughal Empire (alternative spelling Mogul, which is the origin of the word Mogul) of India was founded by Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. ... A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a religious faith originating in the Punjab. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, or ethnic Afghan; in referring to the period of the British Raj or earlier, sometimes Pathan) are an ethnic/religious group of people, living primarily in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India who follow Pashtunwali, their indigenous religion. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (Meaning: Land of five Rivers) (also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Devanagari: पंजाब, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... Gurkha Soldiers (1896) Wives and children of Gurkha Soldiers (1896) Gurkha (or Gorkha) are a people from Nepal who take their name from the former city-state of Gorkha, which went on to found the Kingdom of Nepal later on. ...

Most of southern India remained passive with only sporadic and haphazard outbreaks of violence. Most of the states did not take part in the war but by doing this they kept away from the cause of the Indian side, a grievance still aired by some South Asians.

Initial stages

Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed himself the Emperor of the whole of India. The civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took the oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The Emperor issued coins in his name (One of the oldest ways of asserting Imperial status) and his name was added to the Khutbah (The acceptance by Muslims that he is their King). Khutba is an Islamic sermon delivered after or before Salah. ...

Initially, the Indian soldiers were able to significantly push back Company forces. The sepoys captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, Central Provinces and the United Provinces. The British forces at Meerut and Ambala held out resolutely and withstood the sepoy attacks for several months. Haryana (हरयाणा) is a state in northwest India. ... Bihar (बिहार in Devanagri) is a state situated in the eastern part of India. ... A British Raj province comprising British conquests from the Mughals and Marathas in central India. ... United Provinces, 1903 A province of the British Raj, which corresponds to modern Uttar Pradesh state of India. ...

The British proved to be formidable foes, largely due to their superior weapons, training, and strategy. The mutinous sepoys were especially handicapped by their lack of a centralised command and control system.

Rao Tularam of Haryana went to collect arms from Russia which had just been in a war with the British in the Crimea, but he died on the way. The Crimea (officially Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Russian transliteration: Avtonomnaya Respublika Krym, Russian: Автономная Республика Крым, Ukrainian: Автономна Республіка Крим, , pronounced cry-MEE-ah in English) is a peninsula and an autonomous republic of Ukraine on the northern coast of the Black Sea. ...

Delhi

The British were slow to strike back at first but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. At the same time, the British moved regiments from the Crimean War, and diverted European regiments headed for China to India. Shimla Shimla (शिमला) is the capital of Himachal Pradesh and a hill station in North India. ... The Crimean War lasted from 28 March 1854 to 1856. ...

After a march lasting two months, the British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badl-ke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi. The British established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the siege began. The siege of Delhi lasted roughly from the 1st of July to the 31st of August. However the encirclement was hardly complete—the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. Later the British were joined by the Punjab Movable Column of Sikh soldiers and elements of Gurkha Brigade. Gurkha Soldiers (1896) The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers. ...

Eagerly-awaited heavy siege guns did not guarantee an easy victory against the numerical superiority of the sepoy. Eventually the British broke through the Kashmiri gate and began a week of street fighting. When the British reached the Red Fort, Bahadur Shah had already fled to Humayun's tomb. The British had retaken the city. Humayun (March 6, 1508 - February 22, 1556), second Mughal Emperor, ruled in India from 1530-1540 and 1555-1556. ...

The British proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were slaughtered to avenge the Europeans killed by the Indians. Artillery was set up in the main mosque in the city and the neighbourhoods within the range of artillery were shot down. These were the homes of the Muslim nobility from all over India. These houses contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches. An example would be the loss of most of the works of Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib, thought of as the greatest south Asian poet of that era. Mirza Asadullah Beg Khan Ghalib1 (also known as Mirza Ghalib) (December 27, 1797 - February 15, 1869) was an Indian Muslim poet who wrote in Urdu and Persian. ...

The British arrested Bahadur Shah later and the next day British officer William Hodson shot his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khizr Sultan, and Mirza Abu Bakr under his own authority. Their heads were presented to their father the next day. William Stephen Raikes Hodson (March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858), known as Hodson of Hodsons Horse, British leader of light cavalry during the Indian Mutiny, third son of the Rev. ...

Cawnpore

In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore, (now Kanpur) rebelled — apparently with tacit approval of the Nana Sahib — and besieged the European entrenchment. The British lasted three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water, suffering constant casualties. On the 25th of June the Nana Sahib requested surrender and Wheeler had little choice but to accept. The Nana Sahib promised them safe passage to a secure location but when the British boarded riverboats, their pilots fled, setting fire to the boats, and the rebellious sepoys opened fire on the British, soldiers and civilians. One boat with 4 men escaped. Kānpur (known as Cawnpore before 1948) is the most populous city in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Nana Sahib was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He was refused the pension that his father had been receiving from the British because he was adopted. ... The Seige of Cawnpore was a symbolic event in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. ...

The surviving women and children were led to Bibi-Ghar (the House of the Ladies) in Cawnpore. On the 15th of July, worried by the approach of the British forces and believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, the Nana Sahib ordered their murders. Three men entered it and killed everyone with knives and hatchets and hacked them to pieces. Their bodies were thrown down a well.

The British were aghast and the pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British soldiers for the rest of the conflict. The Nana Sahib disappeared and was probably killed trying to escape India.

When the British retook Cawnpore later, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibi-Ghar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor. Then they hanged all of the sepoy prisoners.

Lucknow

Rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh) very soon after the events in Meerut. The British commander of Lucknow, Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. British forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels initial assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, numbers of British were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants. This action quickly became known as the Siege of Lucknow. Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Uttar Pradesh (Hindi: उत्तर प्रदेश, Urdu: اتر پردیش), also popularly known by it acronym UP, is the fifth largest and the most populous state in India. ... Lucknow is the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. ... Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence (June 28, 1806 - July 4, 1857) was a British soldier and statesman in British India, who died defending Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny. ... Lucknow, the capital of Oudh, was the scene of a historic defence during the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, known as the Siege of Lucknow. ...

On the 25th of September a thousand soldiers of the Highlanders under General Sir Henry Havelock joined them, in what was known as 'The First Relief of Lucknow'. In October another Highlander unit under Sir Colin Campbell came to relieve them and on the 18th of November they evacuated the compound women and children first. They fled to now-retaken Cawnpore. Official name The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) Colonel-in-Chief HRH The Prince of Wales Nicknames Motto Nemo Me Impune Lacessit Anniversaries Red Hackle Day (5 January) Marches Quick: All the Blue Bonnets are oer the Border Slow: The Garb of Old Gaul Pipes & Drums Quick: Hielan Laddie... Major-General Sir Henry Havelock (5 April 1795 - 24 November 1857) was a British general. ... Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde (October 20, 1792 - August 24, 1863) was a British soldier. ...

Jhansi

Jhansi was a Maratha-ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. When the Raja of Jhansi died without an male heir in 1853, Jhansi was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor-General of India under the Doctrine of Lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, protested the annexation on the grounds that she had not been allowed to adopt a successor, as per Indian custom. Jhansi is a city of Uttar Pradesh state, India. ... Maratha is a kshatriya (warrior) caste of Marathi-speaking people primarily residing in the plains and hills of Indias western state of Maharashtra. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Bundelkhand is the name of the geographical area of central India. ... The British Raj is an informal term for the British colonial administration of most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, also included from 1886 was Burma. ... The Governor-General of India (or Governor-General and Viceroy of India) was the head of the British administration in India. ... The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856. ... Rani Lakshmi Bai (born-19 November 1835- died 18 June 1858), the queen of Jhansi, a Maratha-ruled princely state of northern India, was one of the great nationalist heroes of the Revolt of 1857, and a symbol of resistance to British rule in India. ...

When the Rebellion broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of British officials took refuge in Jhansi's fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. When the British left the fort, they were massacred by the rebels. Although the massacre might have occurred without the Rani's consent, the British suspected her of complicity in the slaughter, despite her protestations of innocence. Jhansi is a city of Uttar Pradesh state, India. ...

In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi from the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha. In March 1858, the British Army, led by Colonel Rose advanced on Jhansi, and laid siege to the city. The British captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise. She was later killed in a skirmish with the British forces. Datia is a city and district in northern Madhya Pradesh state, India. ... Orchha (or Urchha) is a town in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh state, India. ...

Other areas

On 1 June 1858, Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalher (Gwalior) from the Shinde (Sindhia) rulers, who were British allies. The Rani was killed three weeks later at the start of the British assault, when she was hit by a spray of bullets after fleeing Gwalior. The British captured Gwalior three days later. June 1 is the 152nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (153rd in leap years), with 213 days remaining. ... 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... Teli-ka-Mandir Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh, India. ... The Sindhia, also spelled Scindia , Sindia, or Shinde are a prominent Maratha family in India. ...

The Rohillas centred in Bareilly were also very active in the war and this area was amongst the last to be captured by the British. Rohilla was a steamship of the British India Steam Navigation Company which ran aground in 1914 while serving as the HMHS Rohilla. ... Bareilly is a city in Uttar Pradesh State in northern India on the Ramganga River. ...

Retaliation

Secundra Bagh after the slaughter of 2,000 Rebels by the 93rd Highlanders and 4th Punjab Regiment

From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the war ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had been slain in battle. The British adopted the old Mughal punishment for mutiny and sentenced rebels were lashed to the mouth of cannons and blown to pieces. It was a crude and brutal war, with both sides resorting to what will now be described as war crimes. In the end, however, in terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were significantly higher on the Indian side. Interior of the Secundra Bagh after the Slaughter of 2,000 Rebels by the 93rd Highlanders and 4th Punjab Regiment. ... Interior of the Secundra Bagh after the Slaughter of 2,000 Rebels by the 93rd Highlanders and 4th Punjab Regiment. ... July 8 is the 189th day of the year (190th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 176 days remaining. ... 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... Teli-ka-Mandir Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh, India. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... Nana Sahib was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He was refused the pension that his father had been receiving from the British because he was adopted. ... A war crime is a punishable offense, under international law, for violations of the law of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ...

Due to the bloody start of the rebellion, and the violence perpetrated upon the Europeans by the Indian forces especially after the apparent treachery of Nana Sahib and butchery in Cawnpore, the British believed that they were justified in using similar tactics. As a result, the end of the war was followed by the execution of a vast majority of combatants from the Indian side as well as large numbers of civilians perceived to be sympathetic to the rebel cause. The British press and British government did not advocate clemency of any kind, though Governor General Canning tried to be sympathetic to native sensibilities, earning the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning". Soldiers took very few prisoners and often executed them later. Whole villages were wiped out for apparent pro-rebel sympathies. The retaliation was termed by the Indians: Devil's Wind.

Reorganisation

The rebellion also saw the end of the East India Company's rule in India. In August, by the Act for the Better Government of India, power was transferred to the British Crown. A secretary of state was entrusted with the authority of Indian affairs and the Crown's viceroy in India was to be the chief executive. The British embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing the East India Company.

The viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. The British also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones; henceforth 'Indian' regiments would be made-up of at least one-third British soldiers and only these would be allowed to handle artillery. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of her Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, finally bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. Signature of King Edward VIII The R and I after his name indicate king and emperor in Latin (Rex and Imperator, respectively). ... The Right Honourable Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman and author. ... Yangôn, formerly Rangoon, population 4,504,000 (2001), is the capital of Myanmar. ...

Related articles

• History of South Asia
• British Raj
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