Shielded metal arc welding

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x714, 553 KB) Retrieved from [1] on March 20, 2005 by Spangineer. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x714, 553 KB) Retrieved from [1] on March 20, 2005 by Spangineer. ... Manual Metal Arc welding, also known as stick or MMA welding is one of the most common forms of welding. ... An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a metallic part of a circuit (e. ... In metallurgy, flux is a substance which removes passivating oxides from the surface of a metal or alloy. ... In electricity, current refers to electric current, which is the flow of electric charge. ... City lights viewed in a motion blurred exposure. ... Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... A high output constant current welding power supply for use with GTAW and SMAW A welding power supply is an electrical device that provides an electrical current to perform welding procedures which require electricity. ... Electricity arcs between the power rail and electrical pickup shoe on a London Underground train An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma discharge, similar to the instant spark, resulting from a current flowing through normally nonconductive media such as air. ... Hot metal work from a blacksmith In chemistry, a metal (Greek: Metallon) is an element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms. ... Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding. ...

Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.^[1] A wire feeder configured for . ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... The steel cable of a colliery winding tower. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304L) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Aluminum is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance, due to a thin layer of oxidation that forms quickly when it is exposed to air. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic and silvery with a gold tinge Standard atomic weight 58. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resulting material has metallic properties. ...

Development

After the discovery of the electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy, arc welding began to develop slowly, and by the end of the 19th century, an early welding process called carbon arc welding was developed. Nikolai N. Benardos and Stanislaus Olszewski were awarded patents in the 1880s showing a rudimentary electrode holder, and later, in 1890 C. L. Coffin received a U.S. patent for his arc welding method that utilized a metal electrode. The process, like SMAW, deposited melted electrode metal, serving as filler metal, into the weld.^[2] Electricity arcs between the power rail and electrical pickup shoe on a London Underground train An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma discharge, similar to the instant spark, resulting from a current flowing through normally nonconductive media such as air. ... Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, FRS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was an esteemed British chemist and physicist. ... Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a process in which an arc is established between a nonconsumable carbon (graphite) electrode and the work, or between two carbon electrodes. ...

Around the turn of the 20th century, A. P. Strohmenger and Oscar Kjellberg released the first coated electrodes. Strohmenger used clay and lime as a coating to stabilize the arc, while Kjellberg dipped iron wire into mixtures of carbonates and silicates to coat the electrode.^[3] In 1912 Strohmenger released a heavily coated electrode, but because of the high cost and complex production methods, none of these early electrodes became popular. In 1927, however, an extrusion process was released that reduced the cost of coating electrodes while opening the door to more complex coating mixtures designed for specific applications. Later, in the 1950s the use of iron powder in the electrode covering became popular, making it possible to increase the welding speed.^[4] The Gay Head cliffs in Marthas Vineyard are made almost entirely of clay. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... In organic chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid. ... In chemistry, a silicate is a compound containing an anion in which one or more central silicon atoms are surrounded by electronegative ligands. ... Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. ...

In 1938 K. K. Madsen described an automated variation of SMAW, now known as gravity welding. It briefly gained popularity in the 1960s after receiving publicity for its use in Japanese shipyards. However, today its applications are limited. Another little used variation of the process, known as firecracker welding, was developed around the same time by George Haferguy in Austria.^[5]

Operation

SMAW weld area

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece in a short sweeping motion and then pulled away slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off vapors that protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduce the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.^[6] Image File history File links SMAW_weld_area. ... Image File history File links SMAW_weld_area. ... Electricity arcs between the power rail and electrical pickup shoe on a London Underground train An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma discharge, similar to the instant spark, resulting from a current flowing through normally nonconductive media such as air. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... Layers of Atmosphere - not to scale (NOAA)[3] Earths atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earths gravity. ...

The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds. Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.^[7]

Quality

The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking. Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition associated with direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when low-hydrogen electrodes are used. Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern because it can potentially weaken the weld. Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though it is often easily visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an improper electrode. Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by decreasing welding speed, increasing the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the weld prone to cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed. Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools.^[8] Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... // Nondestructive testing (also called NDT, nondestructive evaluation, NDE, and nondestructive inspection, NDI) is testing that does not destroy the test object. ...

Safety

SMA welding, like other welding methods, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice if proper precautions are not taken. The process uses an open electric arc, presenting a risk of burns which is prevented by personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and long sleeve jackets. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area can lead to a condition called arc eye, in which ultraviolet light causes the inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, especially in industrial environments, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.^[9] // Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other gear designed to protect the wearers body or clothing from injury by electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, and in sports, martial arts, combat, etc. ... Modern leather-working tools Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides and skins of animals, primarily cattlehide. ... // Long satin gloves Leather gloves A glove (Middle English from Old English glof) is a type of garment which covers the hand of a human. ... Arc eye, also known as arc flash, welders flash, corneal flash burns, or flash burns, is a painful ocular condition sometimes experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate eye protection. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber, providing most of an eyes optical power [1]. Together with the lens, the cornea refracts light and, as a result, helps the eye to focus. ... Human eye cross-sectional view. ... This article is about the headgear. ... Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride, (IUPAC Polychloroethene) commonly abbreviated PVC, is a widely used thermoplastic polymer. ...

In addition, the vaporizing metal and flux materials expose welders to dangerous gases and particulate matter. The smoke produced contains particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, gases like carbon dioxide and ozone can form, which can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.^[10] Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), aerosols or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. ... Smoke from a wildfire Smoke is a suspension in air (aerosol) of small particles resulting from incomplete combustion of a fuel. ... An oxide is a chemical compound containing an oxygen atom and other elements. ... Toxic redirects here, but this is also the name of a song by Britney Spears; see Toxic (song) Look up toxic and toxicity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... It has been suggested that Ozone generator be merged into this article or section. ...

Application

Shielded metal arc welding is one of world's most popular welding processes, accounting for over half of all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.^[11] A wire feeder configured for . ... Gas metal arc welding Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes, metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through...

SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminum. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but rarely does it drop below 0.05 in (1.5 mm). No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.^[12] Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a metal alloy, a combination of two elements, iron and carbon, where other elements are present in quantities too small to affect the properties. ... The steel cable of a colliery winding tower. ... The 630 foot high, stainless-clad (type 304L) Gateway Arch defines St. ... Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... -1... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... General Name, Symbol, Number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic and silvery with a gold tinge Standard atomic weight 58. ... General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Standard atomic weight 63. ... General Name, Symbol, Number aluminium, Al, 13 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 13, 3, p Appearance silvery Standard atomic weight 26. ...

Equipment

SMAW system setup

Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current welding power supply and an electrode, with an electrode holder, a work clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting the two. Image File history File links SMAW_setup. ... Image File history File links SMAW_setup. ... A high output constant current welding power supply for use with GTAW and SMAW A welding power supply is an electrical device that provides an electrical current to perform welding procedures which require electricity. ... An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a metallic part of a circuit (e. ...

Power supply

The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.^[13]

The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the polarity so that the electrode is positively charged and the workpiece negatively charged increases the weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.^[14] Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electricity through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... City lights viewed in a motion blurred exposure. ...

A high output welding power supply for SMAW and GTAW

Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for direct current models a rectifier, for converting alternating current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the welding machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and increase the current. As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the transformer is around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with each using a different method to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary coils (in movable coil or movable core transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable, use electronic components to change the current characteristics.^[15] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 808 KB) // Overview This is a picture of the front of a Miller Syncrowave 350LX welding power source for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and Shielded Metal Arc Welding. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 808 KB) // Overview This is a picture of the front of a Miller Syncrowave 350LX welding power source for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and Shielded Metal Arc Welding. ... A high output constant current welding power supply for use with GTAW and SMAW A welding power supply is an electrical device that provides an electrical current to perform welding procedures which require electricity. ... Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. ... Three-phase pole-mounted step-down transformer. ... AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals A rectifier is an electrical device, comprising one or more semiconductive devices (such as diodes) or vacuum tubes arranged for converting alternating current to direct current. ... Josephson junction array chip developed by NIST as a standard volt. ... Current can be measured by a galvanometer, via the deflection of a magnetic needle in the magnetic field created by the current. ... An inverter is an electronic circuit for converting direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). ...

Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding power supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC.^[16] “Dynamo” redirects here. ... Early 20th century Alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station. ...

Electrode

Various welding electrodes and an electrode holder

The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality.^[17] Electrodes can be divided into three groups—those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.^[18] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1198 KB) Various Shielded Metal Arc Welding electrodes and an electrode holder. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1198 KB) Various Shielded Metal Arc Welding electrodes and an electrode holder. ... Shielding gases are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding. ...

The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials like aluminum and copper.^[19] However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.^[20] HSLA steel (high strength low alloy steel) is a type of steel alloy that provides many benefits over regular steel alloys. ...

Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, made of 25%–45% TiO₂, are characterized by ease of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging embrittlement and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF₂), sometimes known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-shaped joint surface. Electrodes made of cellulose, especially when combined with rutile, provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content, special procedures must be used to prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive, as it improves the productivity of the electrode, sometimes as much as doubling the yield.^[21] Rutile in trellis texture characteristic of secondary rutile. ... Calcium fluoride (CaF2) is an insoluble ionic compound of calcium and fluorine. ... Cellulose as polymer of β-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... General Name, Symbol, Number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which various metals, most importantly high-strength steel, become brittle and crack following exposure to hydrogen. ... A hygroscopic substance is a substance that absorbs water readily from its surroundings. ...

To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand pounds per square inch (ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying element being contributed by the electrode.^[22] A pressure gauge reading in PSI (red scale) and kPa (black scale) The pound-force per square inch (symbol: lbf/in²) is a non-SI unit of pressure based on avoirdupois units. ...

Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (410 MPa) which is operated using DCEP. Its cousin E6011 is similar except that it is used with alternating current. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.^[23] The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the SI derived unit of pressure or stress (also: Youngs modulus and tensile strength). ...

Process variations

Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process variation exists, known as gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an automated version of the traditional shielded metal arc welding process, employing an electrode holder attached to an inclined bar along the length of the weld. Once started, the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage multiple gravity welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are coated heavily in flux, and are typically 28 in (0.8 m) in length and about 0.25 in (6 mm) thick. As in manual SMAW, a constant current welding power supply is used, with either negative polarity direct current or alternating current.

Due to a rise in the use of semiautomatic welding processes such as flux-cored arc welding, the popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its economic advantage over such methods is often minimal. Other SMAW-related methods that are even less frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic method for making butt and fillet welds, and massive electrode welding, a process for welding large components or structures that can deposit up to 60 lb (27 kg) of weld metal per hour.^[24] A wire feeder configured for . ...

References

• Cary, Howard B. and Scott C. Helzer (2005). Modern Welding Technology. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-113029-3.
• Jeffus, Larry (1999). Welding: Principles and Applications. Albany: Thomson Delmar. ISBN 0-8273-8240-5 .
• Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN 99949-25-82-2 .
• Weman, Klas (2003). Welding processes handbook. New York: CRC Press LLC. ISBN 0-8493-1773-8 .

Notes

External links

• SMAW guidelines (.pdf)
• MMA welding from The Welding Institute
• Process overview from Materials Engineering Group

Metalworking
Welding
Arc welding: Shielded metal (MMA) | Gas metal (MIG) | Flux-cored | Submerged | Gas tungsten (TIG) | Plasma
Other processes: Oxyfuel | Resistance | Spot | Forge | Ultrasonic | Electron beam | Laser beam
Equipment: Power supply | Electrode | Filler metal | Shielding gas | Robot | Helmet
Related: Heat-affected zone | Weldability | Residual stress | Arc eye | Underwater welding
See also: Brazing | Soldering | Metalworking | Fabrication | Casting | Machining | Metallurgy | Jewelry