Shrimp growout pond on a farm in South Korea.

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce marine shrimp or prawn¹ for human consumption. Begun in the 1970s, production grew steeply to match the market demands of, in particular, the U.S.A., Japan and the European Union. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million metric tonnes in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars. Image File history File links Shrimp growout pond on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ... Image File history File links Shrimp growout pond on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ... Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms, such as fish, shellfish, algae and other aquatic plants. ... Superfamilies and families Alpheoidea Alpheidae - snapping shrimps Barbouriidae Hippolytidae Ogyrididae Atyoidea Atyidae Bresilioidea Agostocarididae Alvinocarididae Bresiliidae Disciadidae Mirocarididae Campylonotoidea Bathypalaemonellidae Campylonotoidae Crangonoidea Crangonoidea Glyphocrangonoidea Galatheacaridoidea Galatheacarididae Nematocarcinoidea Eugonatonotidae Nematocarcinidae Rhynchocinetidae Xiphocarididae Oplophoroidea Oplophoridae Palaemonoidea Anchistioididae Desmocarididae Euryrhynchidae Gnathophyllidae Hymenoceridae Kakaducarididae Palaemonidae Typhlocarididae Pandaloidea Pandalidae Thalassocarididae Pasiphaeoidea Pasiphaeidae Physetocaridoidea Physetocarididae Procaridoidea... Superfamilies Panaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. ... This article provides extensive lists of events and significant personalities of the 1970s. ... For other uses, see United States (disambiguation) and US (disambiguation). ... A tonne (also called metric ton) is a non-SI unit of mass, accepted for use with SI, defined as: 1 tonne = 103 kg (= 106 g). ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ...

75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is leading. The largest exporting nation is Thailand. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids, i.e., shrimps of the family of the Penaeidae. World map showing location of Asia Asia is the central and eastern part of the continent of Eurasia, defined by subtracting the European peninsula from Eurasia. ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ... Superfamilies Panaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. ... Scientific classification or biological classification refers to how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. ... Genera Artemesia Atypopenaeus Farfantepenaeus Fenneropenaeus Funchalia Heteropenaeus Litopenaeus Macropetasma Marsupenaeus Megokris Melicertus Metapenaeopsis Metapenaeus Miyadiella Parapenaeopsis Parapenaeus Pelagopenaeus Penaeopsis Penaeus Protrachypene Rimapenaeus Tanypenaeus Trachypenaeopsis Trachypenaeus Trachysalambria Xiphopenaeus Penaeidae is a family of prawns, although they are often referred to as penaeid shrimp. ...

Shrimp farming has evolved from traditional, small-scale businesses in south-east Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing the shrimps at ever higher densities, and broodstock is shipped on a world-wide scale. Only two species of shrimp—the Pacific White Shrimp and the Giant Tiger Prawn—account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to diseases, which have caused regional wipe-outs of the shrimp populations of farms several times. The ecological problems of shrimp farming were long ignored by the political decisionmakers; only at the end of the 1990s did the lobbying of NGOs result in the institution of programmes aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices that included governmental bodies. Binomial name Litopenaeus vannamei Boone, 1931 Whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), also known as Pacific White shrimp, are a variety of prawn (not shrimp) of the eastern Pacific Ocean commonly caught or farmed for food. ... Monoculture means literally a single shared integrated pattern. ... A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... (Ecology is sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for the natural environment. ... // Events and trends The 1990s are generally classified as having moved slightly away from the more conservative 1980s, but keeping the same mind-set. ... A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an organization that is not part of a government and was not founded by states. ... Sustainable - the ability to maintain into perpetuity. ...

History and geography

Shrimp farming has been done for centuries in Asia, using traditional low-density methods. Shrimp were farmed on a small scale in ponds, in monocultures or together with other species, or in rotation with rice.^[Rön01] The origins of industrial shrimp farming can be traced back to the 1930s, when Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) was spawned and cultivated for the first time in Japan. By the 1960s, a small shrimp farming industry had appeared in Japan.^[Ros04a] Species References ITIS 41975 2002-09-22 Rice (genus Oryza) is a plant of the grass family which is a dietary staple of more than half of the worlds human population. ... // Events and trends The 1930s were spent struggling for a solution to the global depression. ... The 1960s, or The Sixties, in its most obvious sense refers to the decade between 1960 and 1969, but the expression has taken on a wider meaning over the past twenty years. ...

Commercial shrimp farming began in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Technological advances led to ever more intensive forms of shrimp farming, and the growing market demand led to a proliferation of shrimp farms throughout the world, concentrated mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Taiwan was amongst the early adopters and a major producer in the 1980s; its production collapsed beginning in 1988 due to the inherently unsustainable practices of the trade (see Ecological impacts below).^[ISA00] In Thailand, large-scale intensive shrimp farming expanded rapidly from 1985 on.^[HL01] Brazil had been active in shrimp farming since 1974, but the trade really boomed there only in the 1990s, making the country a major producer within few years.^[Nov03] // Events and trends The 1980s marked an abrupt shift towards more conservative lifestyles after the momentous cultural revolutions which took place in the 60s and 70s and the definition of the AIDS virus in 1981. ... 1988 is a leap year starting on a Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1985 is a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Today, there are marine shrimp farms in over fifty countries. About 75% of the world production of farmed shrimp comes from Asian countries; the two leading nations being China and Thailand, closely followed by Vietnam, India, and Indonesia. The other 25% are produced in the western hemisphere, where the South-American countries (Brazil, Ecuador, Mexico) dominate. Thailand is by far the major export nation, with a world-wide market share of more than 30%.

Life cycle of shrimps

A nauplius of a shrimp.

Shrimps mature and breed only in a marine habitat. The females lay between 50,000 to 1 million eggs that hatch after some 24 hours as tiny nauplii. These nauplii feed on yolk reserves within their body and then undergo a metamorphosis into zoeae. This second larval stage feeds in the wild on algae and after a few days metamorphoses again into the third stage, called mysis. The myses already look akin to tiny shrimps and feed on algae and on zooplankton. After another three to four days they transform a last time into postlarvae: young shrimps having all the characteristics of adults. The whole process takes about 12 days from hatching. The postlarvae then migrate into estuaries, which are rich in nutrients and low in salinity. There they grow and eventually migrate back into open waters when they mature.^[IAA01] Image File history File links A Nauplius of penaeid shrimp. ... Image File history File links A Nauplius of penaeid shrimp. ... A nauplius is the larva of many kinds of crustaceans. ... Habitat (from the Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species lives and grows. ... A nauplius is the larva of many kinds of crustaceans. ... The egg yolk is the yellow inside an egg. ... Metamorphosis in biology is physical development of the individual after birth or hatching involving significant change in form as well as growth and differentiation. ... The zoea larva of the blue king crab, Paralithodes platypus The zoea is the first free-swimming larval stage of crustaceans. ... Photomontage of plankton organisms Plankton is the aggregate community of weakly swimming but mostly drifting small organisms that inhabit the water column of the ocean, seas, and bodies of freshwater. ... Estuaries and coastal waters are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing numerous ecological, economic, cultural, and aesthetic benefits and services. ...

Species

Although there are many species of shrimp and prawn, only a few of the larger ones are actually cultivated, all of which belong to the family of penaeids (family Penaeidae),^[Ros04b] and within it to the genus Penaeus². Many species are unsuitable for farming: they are too small to be profitable, or simply stop growing when crowded together, or are too susceptible to diseases. The two species dominating the market are: Superfamilies Panaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. ... Scientific classification or biological classification refers to how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. ... Genera Artemesia Atypopenaeus Farfantepenaeus Fenneropenaeus Funchalia Heteropenaeus Litopenaeus Macropetasma Marsupenaeus Megokris Melicertus Metapenaeopsis Metapenaeus Miyadiella Parapenaeopsis Parapenaeus Pelagopenaeus Penaeopsis Penaeus Protrachypene Rimapenaeus Tanypenaeus Trachypenaeopsis Trachypenaeus Trachysalambria Xiphopenaeus Penaeidae is a family of prawns, although they are often referred to as penaeid shrimp. ... Species Pennaeus esculentes Haswell, 1879 Pennaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798 Pennaeus semisculatus de Haan, 1844 Penaeus is a genus of prawns. ...

• Pacific White Shrimp (Penaeus vannamei, also called "Whiteleg Shrimp") is the main species cultivated in western countries. Native to the Pacific coast from Mexico to Peru, it grows to a size of 23 cm. P. vannamei accounts for 95% of the production in Latin America. It is easy to breed in captivity, but succumbs to the Taura disease.
• Giant Tiger Prawn (P. monodon) occurs in the wild in the Indian Ocean and in the Pacific Ocean from Japan to Australia. The largest of all the cultivated shrimp, it can grow to a length of 36 cm and is farmed in Asia. Because of its susceptibility to the Whitespot disease and the difficulty of breeding it in captivity, it is gradually being replaced by P. vannamei since 2001.

Together, these two species account for about 80% of the whole farmed shrimp production.^{[Jos04, p.8]} Other species being bred are: Binomial name Litopenaeus vannamei Boone, 1931 Whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), also known as Pacific White shrimp, are a variety of prawn (not shrimp) of the eastern Pacific Ocean commonly caught or farmed for food. ... hi ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ... The Taura syndrome is a viral infection of penaeid shrimp. ... World map showing location of Asia Asia is the central and eastern part of the continent of Eurasia, defined by subtracting the European peninsula from Eurasia. ... The Whitespot syndrome (WSS) is a viral infection of penaeid shrimp. ...

Kuruma shrimps in an aquaculture observation tank in Taiwan.

• Western Blue Shrimp (P. stylirostris) was a popular choice for shrimp farming in the western hemisphere, until the IHHN virus wiped out nearly the whole population in the late 1980s. A few stocks survived and became resistant against this virus. When it was discovered that some of these were also resistant against the Taura virus, some farms again bred P. stylirostris from 1997 on.
• Chinese White Shrimp (P. chinensis, also known as the Fleshy Prawn) occurs along the coast of China and the western coast of Korea and is being farmed in China. It grows to a maximum length of only 18 cm, but tolerates colder water (min. 16°C). Once a major factor on the world market, it is today used almost exclusively for the Chinese domestic market after a virus disease wiped out nearly all the stocks in 1993.
• Kuruma Shrimp (P. japonicus) is farmed primarily in Japan and Taiwan, but also in Australia; the only market is in Japan, where live Kuruma shrimps reach prices of the order of US$ 100.– per pound.
• Indian White Shrimp (P. indicus) is a native of the coasts of the Indian Ocean and is widely bred in India, Iran and the Middle East and along the African shores.
• Banana Shrimp (P. merguiensis) is another cultured species from the coastal waters of the Indian Ocean, from Oman to Indonesia and Australia. It can be grown at high densities.

Several other species of Penaeus play only a very minor role in shrimp farming. Some other kinds of shrimp also can be farmed, e.g. the "Akiami paste shrimp" or Metapenaeus spp. Their total production is of the order of only about 25,000 tonnes per year, small in comparison to that of the penaeids. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1768x1152, 1476 KB)Kuruma shrimps (Penaeus japonicus) in an aquaculture observation tank in Taiwan. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1768x1152, 1476 KB)Kuruma shrimps (Penaeus japonicus) in an aquaculture observation tank in Taiwan. ... // Events and trends The 1980s marked an abrupt shift towards more conservative lifestyles after the momentous cultural revolutions which took place in the 60s and 70s and the definition of the AIDS virus in 1981. ... 1997 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other places called Korea, see: Korea (disambiguation) Korea (한국/韓國, 조선/朝鮮) is a formerly unified country, situated on the Korean Peninsula in northern East Asia, bordering on China to the northwest and Russia to the north. ... The degree Celsius (°C or ℃ (Unicode 0x2103)) is a unit of temperature named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who first proposed a similar system in 1742. ... 1993 is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... Officially the pound is the name for at least three different units of mass: The pound (avoirdupois). ... Binomial name Penaeus indicus H. Milne-Edwards, 1837 Indian Prawn (Penaeus indicus), also called White Prawn or Indian White Shrimp, is one of the major commercial prawn species of the world. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Superfamilies Panaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. ...

Technologies

In shrimp farms, the whole life cycle occurs under artificial conditions. Reasons to do so include more intensive farming and predator control, but also the ability to speed up the cycle by controlling the climate (especially in farms in the temperate zones, using indoor hatcheries and nurseries in greenhouses). There are three different stages: A greenhouse in Saint Paul, Minnesota. ...

• Hatcheries breed shrimps and produce nauplii or even postlarvae, which they sell. Large shrimp farms maintain their own hatcheries and sell nauplii or postlarvae to smaller farms in the region.
• Nurseries are those parts of a shrimp farm where postlarvae are grown and accustomed to the marine conditions in the growout ponds.
• In the growout ponds the shrimps are grown from juveniles to marketable size, which takes between three to six months.

Most farms produce one to two harvests a year; in tropical climates, a farm may even produce three harvests.

Hatcheries

Tanks in a shrimp hatchery.

Small-scale hatcheries are very common throughout south-east Asia. Often run as family businesses and using a low-technology approach, they use small tanks (less than ten tons) and often low animal densities. They are susceptible to diseases, but due to their small size, they can typically restart production quickly after disinfection. The survival rate is anywhere between zero and 90%, depending on a wide range of factors, including diseases, the weather, and the experience of the operator. Image File history File links A hatchery on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ... Image File history File links A hatchery on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ...

Greenwater hatcheries are medium-sized hatcheries using large tanks with low animal densities. To feed the shrimp larvae, an algal bloom is induced in the tanks. The survival rate is about 40%. A red tide resulting from a dinoflagellate bloom discoloring the water on the right An algal bloom is a relatively rapid increase in the population of (usually) phytoplankton algae in an aquatic system. ...

Galveston hatcheries (named after the city of Galveston, where they were developed) are large-scale, industrial hatcheries using a closed and tightly controlled environment. They breed the shrimps at high densities in large (15 to 30 tons) tanks. Survival rates vary between zero and 80%, but typically achieve 50%. Galveston redirects here. ...

In hatcheries, the developing shrimps are fed on a diet of algae and later also brine shrimp nauplii, sometimes (especially in industrial hatcheries) augmented by artificial diets. The diet of later stages also includes fresh or freeze-dried animal protein, e.g. from krill. Nutritions and medications (such as antibiotics) fed to the brine shrimp nauplii are passed on to the shrimp that eat those nauplii.^[Ros04a] ... Freeze drying (also known as Lyophilization) is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material, or to make the material more convenient for transport. ... Families Euphausiidae Bentheuphausiidae Krill are shrimp-like marine invertebrate animals. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ...

Nurseries

Farmers transferring postlarvae from the tanks on the truck to a growout pond.

Many farms have nurseries where the postlarval shrimps are grown into juveniles for another three weeks in separate ponds, tanks, or so-called raceways. A raceway is a rectangular, long, shallow tank through which the water flows from one end to the other.^[vW99a] Image File history File links Stocking of postlarvae in a growout pond on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ... Image File history File links Stocking of postlarvae in a growout pond on a shrimp farm in South Korea. ...

In a typical nursery, there are about 150 to 200 animals per square metre. They are fed on a high-protein diet for at most about three weeks before they are moved to the growout ponds. At that time, they weigh between one and two grams. The water salinity is adjusted gradually to that of the growout ponds. A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ...

Farmers refer to postlarvae as "PL"s, with the number of days suffixed, e.g. "PL-1", "PL-2", etc. They are ready to be transferred to the growout ponds after their gills have branched, which occurs around PL-13 to PL-17 (about 25 days from hatching). Nursing is not absolutely necessary, but is favored by many farms because it makes for a better food utilization, improves the size uniformity, helps utilize the infrastructure better, and can be done in a controlled environment to increase the harvest. The main disadvantage of nurseries is that some of the postlarval shrimps die upon the transfer to the growout pond.^[Ros04a] In aquatic organisms, gills are a respiratory organ for the extraction of oxygen from water and for the excretion of carbon dioxide. ...

Some farms do not use a nursery but stock the postlarvae directly in the growout ponds after having acclimated them to the appropriate temperature and salinity levels in an acclimation tank. Over the course of a few days, the water in these tanks is changed gradually to match that of the growout ponds. The animal density should not exceed 500/liter for young postlarvae and be below 50/liter for larger ones, such as PL-15.^[vW99b]

Growout

Shrimp pond with paddlewheel aerator.

In the growout phase, the shrimps are grown to maturity. The postlarvae are transferred to ponds, where they are fed until they reach marketable size, which takes about another three to six months. Harvesting the shrimps is done by fishing them from the ponds using nets. Pond sizes and the level of technical infrastructure vary. Image File history File links Shrimp growout pond with a paddlewheel aerator. ... Image File history File links Shrimp growout pond with a paddlewheel aerator. ...

Extensive shrimp farms are invariably located on a coast. The ponds range from just a few to more than 100 hectares; shrimps are stocked at low densities (2 to 3 animals per square metre, or 25,000 per ha). The tides provide for some water exchange, and the shrimps feed on naturally occurring organisms. In some areas, farmers even grow wild shrimps by just opening the gates and impounding wild larvae. Many countries have forbidden the construction of new shrimp farms in tidal or mangrove areas. Common in Vietnam, Indonesia, and Ecuador, extensive farms produce between 50 and 500 kg/ha/y of shrimp (head-on weight). A hectare (symbol ha) is a metric unit of surface area, equal to 100 ares (the name is a contraction of the SI prefix hecto + are). ...

Semi-intensive farms do not rely on tides for water exchange but use pumps and a planned pond layout. They can therefore be built above the high tide line. Pond sizes range from 2 to 30 ha; the stocking densities are between 10 and 30/m² (100,000 to 300,000/ha). At such densities, artificial feeding using industrially prepared shrimp feeds and fertilizing the pond to stimulate the growth of naturally occurring organisms become a necessity. Yields are in the range of 500 to 5,000 kg/ha/y. The tide is the regular rising and falling of the oceans surface caused by changes in gravitational forces external to the Earth. ...

Intensive farms use even smaller ponds (0.1 to 1.5 ha) and even higher stocking densities. The ponds are actively managed: they are aereated, there is a high water exchange to remove waste products and maintain water quality, and the shrimps are fed on specially designed diets, typically in the form of formulated pellets. Such farms produce between 5,000 and 20,000 kg/ha/y, a few super-intensive farms even as much as 100,000 kg/ha/y.

Diseases

There are a variety of lethal viral diseases that affect shrimps.^[BRMES01] In the densely populated, monocultural farms such virus infections spread rapidly and may wipe out whole shrimp populations. A major transfer vector of many of these viruses is the water itself; and thus any virus outbreak also carries the danger of decimating shrimps living in the wild. Three types of viruses: a bacterial virus, otherwise called a bacteriophage (left center); an animal virus (top right); and a retrovirus (bottom right). ... A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. ... Monoculture means literally a single shared integrated pattern. ... Traditionally in medicine, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another. ...

The Yellowhead disease, called Hua leung in Thai, affects P. monodon throughout south-east Asia.^[GSMFC03a] It had been reported first in Thailand in 1990. The disease is highly contagious and leads to mass mortality within 2 to 4 days. Infected shrimps' cephalothorax turns yellow after a period of unusually high feeding activity ending abruptly, and the then moribund shrimps congregate near the surface of their pond before dying.^[OIE03a] The Yellowhead disease (YHD) is a viral infection of shrimp, in particular of the Giant Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon), one of the two major species of farmed shrimp. ... 1990 is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The cephalothorax is an anatomical term used of arachnid and malacostracan arthropods for the first major body section. ...

The Whitespot syndrome is a disease caused by a family of related viruses. First reported in 1993 from Japanese P. japonicus cultures,^[OIE03b] it spread throughout Asia and then to the Americas. It has a wide host range and is highly lethal, leading to mortality rates of 100% within days. Symptoms include white spots on the carapace and a red hepatopancreas. Infected shrimps become lethargic before they die.^[GSMFC03b] The Whitespot syndrome (WSS) is a viral infection of penaeid shrimp. ... 1993 is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... The Hepatopancreas is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods and fish. ...

The Taura syndrome was first reported from shrimp farms on the Taura river in Ecuador in 1992. The host of the virus causing the disease is P. vannamei, one of the two most commonly farmed shrimps. The disease spread rapidly, mainly through the shipping of infected animals and broodstock. Originally confined to farms in the Americas, it has also been propagated to Asian shrimp farms with the introduction of P. vannamei there. Birds are thought to be a route of infection between farms within one region.^[OIE03c] The Taura syndrome is a viral infection of penaeid shrimp. ... 1991 is a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis (IHHN) is a disease that causes mass mortality among P. stylirostris (as high as 90%) and severe deformations in P. vannamei. It occurs in Pacific farmed and wild shrimp, but not in wild shrimp on the Atlantic coast of the Americas.^[OIE03d] Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis (IHHN) is a viral disease of penaeid shrimp that causes mass mortality (up to 90%) among the Western Blue Shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris) and severe deformations in the Pacific White Shrimp (). It occurs in Pacific farmed and wild shrimp, but not in wild shrimp on the... The Atlantic Ocean is Earths second-largest ocean, covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. ...

There are also a number of bacterial infections that are lethal to shrimps. The most common is Vibriosis, caused by the bacterium Vibrio spp. The shrimps become weak and disoriented and may have dark wounds on the cuticle. The mortality rate can exceed 70%. Another bacterial disease is Necrotising hepatopancreatitis (NHP); symptoms include a soft exoskeleton and fouling. Most such bacterial infections are strongly correlated to stressful conditions such as overcrowded ponds, high temperatures, and poor water quality: factors that positively influence the growth of bacteria. Treatment is done using antibiotics.^[ML99] Importing countries have repeatedly placed import bans on shrimp containing various antibiotics. One such infamous antibiotic is Chloramphenicol, which has been banned in the European Union since 1994, but continues to pose problems.^[Ros05] Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria is also the fictional name of a warring nation under Benzino Napaloni as dictator, in the 1940 film The Great Dictator... Vibrio is a genus of bacteria, included in the gamma subgroup of the Proteobacteria. ... In botany the cuticle is the waxy covering produced by the epidermal cells of leaves to protect the plant from excessive water loss. ... Necrotising hepatopancreatitis (NHP), also known as the Texas pond mortality syndrome (TPMS), is a lethal epizootic disease of farmed shrimp, caused by a bacterial infection. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ... Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic that was derived from the bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae and is now produced synthetically. ... 1994 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International year of the Family. ...

Economy

The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million metric tonnes in 2003, representing a farm-gate value of nearly 9,000 million U.S. dollars.^[FIGIS] This accounts for 25% of the total shrimp production from farming and wild catch that year.^{[Jos04, p.9]} The largest market for shrimp is the United States, importing more than 500,000 tonnes of shrimp in 2003. About 250,000 tonnes went to Japan, while the four major European shrimp importing countries (France, Spain, the UK, and Italy) imported together about another 500,000 tonnes.^[FIN] A tonne (also called metric ton) is a non-SI unit of mass, accepted for use with SI, defined as: 1 tonne = 103 kg (= 106 g). ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The import prices for shrimp fluctuate wildly. In 2003 the import price per kilogram shrimp in the United States was US$ 8.80, slightly higher than in Japan at US$8.–. The average import price in the EU was only about US$5.–/kg; this much lower value is explained by the fact that the EU imports more coldwater shrimp (from catches) that are much smaller than the farmed warm water species and thus attain lower prices.^{[Jos04, p.16]} 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The international prototype, made of platinum-iridium, which is kept at the BIPM under conditions specified by the 1st CGPM in 1889. ...

The largest producer of farmed shrimp is China with nearly 500,000 tonnes annually in 2003 (FAO estimate). In the 1990s, Thailand was the leading producer. Its production amounted to 300,000 tonnes in 2003, of which about 40% were P. vannamei. Vietnam was a close third, producing some 230,000 tonnes. Other major producers of aquaculture shrimp are Indonesia (160,000 t), India (110,000), Brazil (90,000), Ecuador (57,000), Bangladesh (56,000), Mexico (46,000), and the Philippines (37,000). In the Middle East, Saudi Arabia is the largest producer (9,000 t), followed by Iran (7,000). (All data for the year 2003.^[FIGIS]) // Events and trends The 1990s are generally classified as having moved slightly away from the more conservative 1980s, but keeping the same mind-set. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ...

In terms of export, Thailand is by far the leading nation with a market share of more than 30%, followed by China, Indonesia, and India, accounting each for about 10%. Thailand exports nearly all of its production, while China uses most of its shrimp in the domestic market. Other major export nations are Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Ecuador.^[FM]

Disease problems have repeatedly impacted the shrimp production negatively. Besides the near-wipeout of P. chinensis in 1993, there were outbreaks of viral diseases the led to marked declines in the per-country production in 1996/97 in Thailand and repeatedly in Ecuador.^{[Jos04, p.7f]} In Ecuador alone, production suffered heavily in 1989 (IHHN), 1993 (Taura), and 1999 (Whitespot).^[FSB03] Another reason for sometimes wild changes in shrimp farm output are the import regulations of the destination countries, which do not allow shrimp contaminated by chemicals or antibiotics to be imported. 1989 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1993 is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... 1999 is a common year starting on Friday of the Common Era, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ...

Ecological impacts

Mangrove estuaries provide a habitat for many animals and plants.

Shrimp farms of all types, from extensive to super-intensive, can cause severe ecological problems wherever they are located. For extensive farms, huge areas of mangroves were cleared, reducing biodiversity. During the 1980s and 1990s, about 35% of the world's mangrove forests have vanished. Shrimp farming was a major cause of this, accounting for over a third of it.^[VBY02] Mangroves, through their roots, help stabilize a coastline and capture sediments; their removal has led to a marked increase of erosion and less protection against floods. Mangrove estuaries are also especially rich and productive ecosystems and provide the spawning grounds for many species of fish, including many commercially important ones.^[ISA00] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1808x1180, 1301 KB)Mangrove lagoon. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1808x1180, 1301 KB)Mangrove lagoon. ... Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal Mangrove are woody trees or shrubs that grow in coastal habitats or mangal (Hogarth, 1999), for which the term mangrove swamp also would apply. ... Biodiversity or biological diversity is the diversity of and in living nature. ... Look up Erosion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. Erosion is the displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock, and so forth) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to gravity, or living organisms (in the case... In ecology, an ecosystem is a community of organisms (plant, animal and other living organisms - also referred as biocenose) together with their environment (or biotope), functioning as a unit. ...

Intensive farms, while reducing the direct impact on the mangroves, have other problems. Their nutrient-rich effluents (industrial shrimp feeds disintegrate quickly, only 30% are actually eaten by the shrimps, the rest is wasted^[Ros04c]) are typically discharged into the environment, seriously upsetting the ecological balance. These waste waters contain significant amounts of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (used to disinfect ponds between uses), and antibiotics that cause severe pollution of the environment. Furthermore, releasing antibiotics in such ways injects them into the food chain and increases the risks of organisms becoming resistant against them.^[Owen04] Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves. ... An airplane spreading pesticide. ... An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. ... Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... Food chains and food webs describe the feeding relationships between species in a biotic community. ... Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of an antibiotic. ...

Prolonged use of a pond leads to an incremental build-up of a toxic sludge at the pond's bottom from waste products and excrements.^[NACA03] Flushing a pond never completely removes this sludge, and eventually, the pond is abandoned, leaving behind a wasteland with the soil made unusable for any other purposes due to the high levels of salinity, acidity, and toxic chemicals. A typical pond in an extensive farm can be used only a few years. An Indian study estimated the time to rehabilitate such lands to about 30 years. Thailand has banned inland shrimp farms since 1998 because they caused too much destruction of agricultural lands due to salination.^[ISA00] A Thai study estimated that 60% of the shrimp farming area in Thailand was abandoned in the years 1989 – 1996.^[HL01]

The global nature of the shrimp farming business and in particular the shipment of broodstock and hatchery products throughout the world have not only introduced various shrimp species as exotic species, but also distributed the diseases the shrimp may carry world-wide. In general, industrial shrimp farming is not sustainable.^[Smi99] It follows a boom-and-bust pattern, exploiting the local environment until it collapses. Many organizations lobby actively for the development of more sustainable farming methods.^[WRM01] A joint programme of the World Bank, the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), the WWF, and the FAO was established in August 1999 to study and propose improved practices for shrimp farming.^[Cons02] Some existing attempts at sustainable export-oriented shrimp farming marketing the shrimps as "ecologically produced" are criticized by NGOs as being dishonest and unserious window-dressing.^[Rön03] Sweet clover (Melilotus sp. ... Sustainable - the ability to maintain into perpetuity. ... Logo of the World Bank The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, in Romance languages: BIRD), better known as the World Bank, is an international organization whose original mission was to finance the reconstruction of nations devastated by WWII. Now, its mission has expanded to fight poverty by means... WWF, the global conservation organization, was originally known as World Wildlife Fund. ... Headquartered in Rome, Italy, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations programs seek to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and, by these means, to eliminate hunger. ... 1999 is a common year starting on Friday of the Common Era, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ...

See also

• Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics and problems with marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the main species' (the Giant River Prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii) developmental life cycle.^[New02] The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tonnes, of which China produced some 180,000 tonnes, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tonnes each. China also produced about 370,000 tonnes of Chinese River Crab (Eriocheir sinensis).^[FIGIS2]

• Shrimp fishery

A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater prawn or shrimp1 for human consumption. ... Binomial name Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man, 1879 The giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), also known commonly as the giant freshwater prawn, is a species of freshwater shrimp native to the Indo-Pacific and northern Australia. ... The word crayfish can mean:- Sea crayfish, also called spiny lobster or rock lobster. ... Sections Dromiacea Raninoida Heterotremata Thoracotremata The term crab is often applied to several different groups of short (nose to tail) decapods with thick exoskeletons, but only members of the Brachyura are true crabs; other taxa, such as hermit crabs, porcelain crabs, king crabs, and horseshoe crabs are, despite superficial similarities... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Fisheries do not generally distinguish between shrimp and prawns, and the terms are used interchangeably. ...

Footnotes

Note 1: The terminology is sometimes confusing as the distinction between "shrimp" and "prawn" is often blurred. The FAO, for instance, calls P. vannamei the "Giant Tiger Prawn", but P. monodon the "Whiteleg Shrimp". Recent aquaculture literature increasingly uses the term "prawn" only for the freshwater forms of Palaemonids and "shrimp" for the marine penaeids.^[IAA01] Superfamilies and families Alpheoidea Alpheidae - snapping shrimps Barbouriidae Hippolytidae Ogyrididae Atyoidea Atyidae Bresilioidea Agostocarididae Alvinocarididae Bresiliidae Disciadidae Mirocarididae Campylonotoidea Bathypalaemonellidae Campylonotoidae Crangonoidea Crangonoidea Glyphocrangonoidea Galatheacaridoidea Galatheacarididae Nematocarcinoidea Eugonatonotidae Nematocarcinidae Rhynchocinetidae Xiphocarididae Oplophoroidea Oplophoridae Palaemonoidea Anchistioididae Desmocarididae Euryrhynchidae Gnathophyllidae Hymenoceridae Kakaducarididae Palaemonidae Typhlocarididae Pandaloidea Pandalidae Thalassocarididae Pasiphaeoidea Pasiphaeidae Physetocaridoidea Physetocarididae Procaridoidea... Superfamilies Panaeoidea Aristeidae Benthesicymidae Penaeidae Sicyoniidae Solenoceridae Sergestoidea Luciferidae Sergestidae Prawns are edible, shrimp-like crustaceans, belonging to the sub-order Dendrobranchiata. ...

Note 2: The taxonomy of the whole genus Penaeus is in flux. Pérez Farfante and Kensley^[PFK97] have proposed a subdivision or reassignment of several species in this genus to new genera based on morphological differences, in particular their genital characteristics. See Penaeus for more information. As a consequence, some of the farmed species are also known under names using the genera Litopenaeus, Farfantepenaeus, Fenneropenaeus, or Marsupenaeus instead of plain Penaeus. Penaeus vannamei, for instance, has become Litopenaeus vannamei. Taxonomy (from Greek ταξινομία (taxinomia) from the words taxis = order and nomos = law) may refer to either the classification of things, or the principles underlying the classification. ... See genus (mathematics) for the use of the term in mathematics. ... Species Pennaeus esculentes Haswell, 1879 Pennaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798 Pennaeus semisculatus de Haan, 1844 Penaeus is a genus of prawns. ...

References

The referencing system used in this article follows the alpha.bst style of BibTeX. BibTeX is a tool for formatting lists of references used by the LaTeX document preparation system. ...

• BRMES01: Bondad-Reantaso, M. G.; McGladdery, S. E.; East, I.; Subasinghe, R. P. (eds.): Asia Diagnostic Guide to Aquatic Animal Diseases, chapter 4. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 402/2, NACA/FAO 2001. ISBN 9-251-04620-4.
• Cons02: Draft report of the Consortium Programme Shrimp Farming and the Environment, World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO, June 21, 2002.
• FIGIS: Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database for the seven commonly farmed species plus Pennaeus spp. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed June 23, 2005.
• FIGIS2: Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed June 28, 2005.
• FIN: FAO: GLOBEFISH Shrimp Market Reports; FAO GlobeFish; 2003 – 2005.
• FM: FoodMarket: Shrimp Production; data from GlobeFish, 2001. Accessed June 23, 2005.
• FSB03: Funge-Smith, S.; Briggs, M.: Introductions and movement of Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus stylirostris in Asia and the Pacific, FAO RAP publication 2004/10. A PDF file of an abridged version presented at the workshop for "International Mechanisms for the Control and Responsible Use of Alien Species in Aquatic Ecosystems", Jinghong, Xishuangbanna, PRC; August 26 – 29, 2003, also exists.
• GSMFC03a: Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Non-Native Species Summaries: Yellowhead Virus (YHV), 2003. Accessed June 23, 2005.
• GSMFC03b: Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Non-Native Species Summaries: White Spot Syndrome Baculovirus Complex (WSBV), 2003. Accessed June 23, 2005.
• HL01: Hossain, Md. Z., Lin, C.K., 2001. Diversified Uses of Abandoned Shrimp Ponds - A Case Study in the Upper Gulf of Thailand. ITCZM Monograph No. 5, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand; 2001.
• IAA01: Indian Aquaculture Authority: Shrimp Aquaculture and the Environment - An Environment Impact Assessment Report, ch. 2; IAA report, April 2001.
• ISA00: International Shrimp Action Network: Prawn to Trade, Prawn to Consume, 2000. Last accessed June 28, 2005.
• Jos04: Josueit, H.: An Overview on the World Shrimp Market, FAO GlobeFish. Presentation given at World Shrimp Markets 2004, Madrid, Spain; October 26/27, 2004.
• NACA03: NACA/MPEDA: Shrimp Health Management Extension Manual, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) and Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), India; 2003.
• New02: New, M. B.: Farming Freshwater Prawns; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 428, 2002. ISSN 0429-9345.
• Nov03: Novelli, Y.: Brazil's Shrimp Farming History, E-Mail, 2003.
• OIE03: World Organization for Animal Health (OIE): Aquatic Manual, 4th Ed., 2003. ISBN 9-290-44563-7.
  • OIE03a: OIE: Aquatic Manual, sect. 4.1.3.
  • OIE03b: OIE: Aquatic Manual, sect. 4.1.2.
  • OIE03c: OIE: Aquatic Manual, sect. 4.1.1.
  • OIE03d: OIE: Aquatic Manual, sect. 4.1.6.
• Owen04: Owen, J.: Shrimp's Success Hurts Asian Environment, Group Says, in National Geographic News, June 21, 2004; updated Dec 20, 2004.
• PFK97: Pérez Farfante, I.; Kensley, B. F.: Penaeoid and Sergestoid Shrimps and Prawns of the World (Keys and Diagnoses for the Families and Genera); Editions du Museum national d'Histoire naturelle #175; Paris, 1997. ISBN 2-856-53510-0.
• Rön01: Rönnbäck, P.: Shrimp aquaculture - State of the art. Swedish EIA Centre, Report 1. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala; 2001. ISBN 9-157-66113-8.
• Rön03: Rönnbäck, P.: Critical Analysis of Certified Ogranic Shrimp Aquaculture in Sidoarjo, Indonesia, Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC), 2003. Last accessed Aug 8, 2005.
• Ros04a: Rosenberry, B.: About Shrimp Farming, ShrimpNews, August 2004. Last accessed Jun 28, 2005.
• Ros04b: Rosenberry, B.: Species of Farm-Raised Shrimp, ShrimpNews, August 2004. Last accessed Jun 23, 2005.
• Ros04c: Rosenberry, B.: Shrimp Feeds, ShrimpNews, August 2004. Last accessed Jun 28, 2005.
• Ros05: Rosenberry, B.: The Rise and Fall of Chloramphenicol, ShrimpNews, May 2005. Last accessed June 28, 2005.
• Smi99: Smith, P. T. (ed.): Coastal Shrimp Aquaculture in Thailand: Key Issues for Research, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra 1999.
• VBY01: Valiela, I.; Bowen, J. L.; York, J. K.: Mangrove forests: One of the world's threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience 51(10), pp. 807 – 815, 2001.
• vW+99: van Wyk, P.; Davis-Hodgkins, M.; Laramore, R.; Main, K.L.; Mountain, J.; Scarpa, J.: Farming Marine Shrimp in Recirculating Freshwater Systems, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution Manual, 1999.
  • ML99: Main, K.L.; Laramore, R.: HBOI Manual, Ch. 9: Shrimp Health Management, HBOI, 1999.
  • vW99a: van Wyk, P.: HBOI Manual, Ch. 4: Principles of Recirculating System Design, HBOI, 1999.
  • vW99b: van Wyk, P.: HBOI Manual, Ch. 6: Receiving and Acclimation of Postlarvae, HBOI, 1999.
• WRM01: World Rainforest Movement: Unsustainable versus sustainable shrimp production, WRM Bulletin 51, October 2001.

2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Headquartered in Rome, Italy, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations programs seek to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and, by these means, to eliminate hunger. ... Headquartered in Rome, Italy, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations programs seek to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food and agricultural products; to promote rural development; and, by these means, to eliminate hunger. ... In the technical terminology of political science the PRC was a communist state for much of the 20th century, and is still considered a communist state by many, though not all, political scientists. ... The National Geographic Society was founded in the USA on January 27, 1888, by 33 men interested in organizing a society for the increase and diffusion of geographical knowledge. ... The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution is in Fort Pierce, Florida. ...

External links

• FAO Fisheries Department: Review of the State of World Aquaculture, FAO Fisheries Circular 886, Rev. 1; FAO, 1997. ISSN 0429-9329.
• Holthuis, L. B.: FAO Species Catalogue, Vol. I: Shrimps and Prawns of the World, FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125, Vol. 1.; FAO, 1980. ISBN 9-251-00896-5.
• McQuaid, J.: Thailand transformed by shrimp boom, March 28, 1996. Part of a series for which the newspaper The Times-Picayune, New Orleans, won the Pulitzer Prize in the category "public service" in 1997.
• Lots of images from aquacultures in Malaysia, including both marine shrimp and freshwater prawn farms, but also other aquacultures.
• "Recommended reading" list from the AARM at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand.
• Scampi.nu is a Swedish web site critical of shrimp farming that has many excellent links to English articles.