Shura is an Arabic word for "consultation". It is believed to be the method by which pre-Islamic Arabian tribes selected leaders and made major decisions. The Arabic language (; , less formally, ) is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. ...

Some Muslims say that Islam requires all decisions made by and for the Muslim community be made by shura. To some, this means that Islam enjoins representative democracy. This belief is characteristic of liberal movements within Islam. Islām is described as a dīn, meaning way of life and/or guidance. Six articles of belief There are six basic beliefs shared by all Muslims: 1. ... Representative democracy is a form of democracy and theory of civics in which voters choose (in free, secret, multi-party elections) representatives to act in their interests, but not as their proxies—i. ... Since the 19th century, Muslim progressives have produced a considerable body of liberal thought within Islam (in Arabic: الإسلام الإجتهادية or interpretation-based Islam; also الإسلام المتقدمة or progressive Islam). These have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly on ijtihad or re-interpretations of scriptures. ...

Other Muslims say that Islam requires submission to existing rulers, however they are chosen, so long as they govern according to sharia or Islamic law. This is a more traditional approach, characteristic of many centuries of Islamic history (see History of Islam). Sharia (Arabic: ; also Sharīah, Sharia, Shariah or Syariah) is the Arabic word for Islamic law, also known as the Law of Allah. ... The History of Islam involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. ...

Choosing of the first caliphs by shura

Arguments over shura begin with the debate over the succession to Prophet Muhammad Peace be Upon Him. When the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Peace be Upon Him, died in 632 CE, a tumultuous meeting at Saqifah selected Abu Bakr as his successor. This meeting did not include some of those with a strong interest in the matter -- especially Ali ibn Abi Talib Alaihe-ssalam, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Ali Alaihe-ssalam and his supporters only grudgingly submitted to Abu Bakr. In later years, the party of Ali Alaihe-ssalam (Shi'at Ali) split from the rest of the Muslim community over this question of succession, thus splitting the ummah into Sunni and Shi'at groups. Saqifah, also known as Saqifa Bani Saeda or Saqifat Bani Saida, was a roofed building used by the tribe, or banu, of Saida, of the faction of the Khazraj, of the city of Medina in the Hijaz, northwestern Arabia. ... Abu Bakr As Siddiq (Arabic ابو بكر الصديق, alternative spellings, Abubakar, Abi Bakr, Abu Bakar) (c. ... Ummah (أمة) is an Arabic word that means community or nation. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ...

Sunni Muslims believe that shura is recommended in the Qur'an, Islam's holy book, and by numerous hadith, or oral traditions of the sayings and doings of Muhammad Peace be Upon Him and his companions. They say that the first four caliphs, or successors to Muhammad Peace be Upon Him , whom they call the Four Rightly-guided Caliphs, were chosen by shura. (See Succession to Muhammad Peace be Upon Him , Umar ibn al-Khattab, The election of Uthman, and Ali Ibn Abi Talib Alaihe-ssalam.) In the Islamic religion, the Sahaba (or Asahaaba,الصحابه; both forms are plural--the singular is Sahaabi, which is Arabic for friend, or companion) are the companions of the Prophet Muhammad. ... This article is on the highest religious and/or temporal title, aspiring universal authority, in Islam; for lower-ranking, notably gubernatorial, uses of the Arabic title khalifa, see that article. ... For other uses of the name, see Umar (disambiguation). ... When `Umar was wounded by Abu Luluah and he saw that it was difficult for him to survive because of the deep wound, he formed a consultative committee and nominated for it `Ali ibn Abi Talib, `Uthman ibn `Affan, `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf, az-Zubayr ibn al...

Shi'at Muslims believe that Muhammad Peace be Upon Him had clearly indicated that Ali, Alaihe-ssalalm, was his divinely-appointed successor, a recommendation that was ignored by the first three caliphs. Shi'ats do not stress the role of shura in choosing leaders, but believe that the divine vice-regent is chosen by God, or Allah, from the lineage of Muhammad Peace be Upon Him (Ahl al-Bayt Alaihemo-ssalam Ajma'in). The majority of Shi'at sect believes that the current imam is in "occultation", hidden away until the last days, but there are minority Shi'at who follow leaders believed to be infallible imams.

Shura and the caliphate

During and after Ali's tenure as caliph, the Muslim community fell into civil war. Power was eventually grasped by the Ummayad caliphs and then by the Abbasid caliphs. However, few of the later caliphs had anything but nominal control over the many Islamic states. There were also rival caliphates in Egypt and Al-Andalus, which included much of current-day Spain. Later the rulers of the Ottoman empire claimed the caliphate. The nominal Ottoman caliphate was dissolved in 1924. The Umayyad Dynasty (Arabic الأمويون / بنو أمية umawiyy; in Turkish, Emevi) was the first dynasty of caliphs of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad himself, though they were of the same Meccan tribe, the Quraish. ... Abbasid provinces during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid Abbasid (Arabic: العبّاسيّون AbbāsÄ«yÅ«n) was the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Islamic empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... This article needs copyediting (checking for proper English spelling, grammar, usage, tone, style, and voice). ...

None of these calphs or rulers was chosen by shura; all grasped power by inheritance or by the sword. The Muslim clergy counselled submission to rulers as long as they were Muslims; however, the clergy also stressed the duty of the ruler to rule by shura. They based this recommendation on these two passages from the Qur'an:

• "..and consult with them on the matter" (3:159)

• "those who conduct their affairs by counsel [are praised]"(43:38).

The first verse suggests that shura is obligatory; the second suggests that shura is praiseworthy but not mandatory.

These verses do not clarify who should be consulted (all Muslims? just men? the powerful men? the clerics?) or on what subjects (all decisions? major decisions? at the discretion of the ruler?). Nor do they say who is to be followed in the event of a disagreement, the ruler or the shura.

In practice, most Muslim rulers were autocratic, listened only to powerful advisors and clergy, and rejected advice they did not like.

Shura and contemporary Muslim-majority states

Some Muslim-majority states, like Turkey, are secular democracies or constitutional monarchies (Morocco). They could thus be said to be ruled by one version of shura. Other states are autocracies, secular, monarchic, or clerical.

Secular autocracies:

• In Egypt, the Upper House of Parliament is known as the Shura Council. Most members are elected for a six-year term. However, all real power is held by Hosni Mubarak.

Monarchist autocracies: An upper house (Frequently known as a Senate) is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. ... An aerial view of Parliament of India at New Delhi. ... The Shura Council (Arabic: Majilis Al-Shura مجلس الشورى) is the upper house of Egyptian bicameral parliament. ... Muhammad Hosni Said Mubarak (Arabic : محمد حسنى سيد مبارك ) (born May 4, 1928) commonly known as Hosni Mubarak (Arabic: حسنى مبارك ) has been the fourth President of the Arab republic of Egypt for twenty-four years, since 14 October 1981. ...

• Saudi Arabia was given a shura council in 1993; there are now 120 members. All real power is held by the King, who is elected by family members, with no input from the populace.

• Oman has a shura council, but its members are appointed by the sultan and they can only offer advice, which may be refused if the sultan so pleases.

Clerical autocracies:

• Iran is now ruled by a Shi'a Islamist government, which came to power in 1979 with the Iranian Revolution. The leader practices shura in that he consults with the other clergy. There is also a parliament, on the Western model, but it has little power.