NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Singapore River

The Singapore River is a small river in terms of physical attributes, but of extreme historical importance to the country of Singapore, the political entity which shares its name. The Singapore River flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean. The immediate upper watershed of the Singapore River is known as the Singapore River Planning Area, although the northernmost part of the watershed becomes River Valley. As the Central Area is treated as a central business district, nearly all land surrounding it is commercial. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... It has been suggested that Pinyin method be merged into this article or section. ... The Malay language, also known locally as Bahasa Melayu, is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people who reside in the Malay Peninsula, southern Thailand, the Philippines, Singapore, central eastern Sumatra, the Riau islands, and parts of the coast of Borneo. ... Tamil ( à®¤à®®à®¿à®´à¯ ) is a classical language and the oldest of the Dravidian language family. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 581 KB) Summary Singapore River. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 581 KB) Summary Singapore River. ... River Gambia flowing through Niokolokoba National Park A river is a large natural waterway. ... The Central Area is the collective term for a group of financial and commercial districts in centre of Singapore which was previously otherwise known as the Central Business District and was renamed to accommodate the expanded function of the area. ... The Central Region of Singapore is one of the five regions in the city-state. ... Oceans (from Okeanos in Greek) are saline waters that cover almost three quarters (71%) of the surface of the Earth. ... A drainage basin is the area within the drainage basin divide (yellow outline), and drains the surface runoff and river discharge (blue lines) of a contiguous area. ... Eateries in pre-war shophouses along River Valley Road offer local delicacies. ... A Central business district (CBD) or downtown is a commercial heart of a city. ...

Geography

On the map, the source of the Singapore River, which is one of about 90 rivers in Singapore and its islands, is at Kim Seng Bridge but the waterway is somewhat longer than its advertised 11 km length and extends, as Alexandra Canal, as far as the junction of Commonwealth Avenue. Here there is a break until North Buona Vista Road where Sungei Ulu Pandan starts and flows into Sungei Pandan which in turn flows into the sea at West Coast Park. Thus, the source of both these waterways is in the Queenstown, Ridout Road Estate and Tanglin Halt area near Margaret Drive. This article does not cite its references or sources. ... River Gambia flowing through Niokolokoba National Park A river is a large natural waterway. ... km redirects here. ... Alexandra Canal is a canal which may refer to: Alexandra Canal, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Alexandra Canal, Singapore This article consisting of geographical locations is a disambiguation page, a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title. ... Queenstown1 is one of the early housing estates in Singapore, built before Toa Payoh and Ang Mo Kio, and was a test bed for much of Singapores public housing. ...

History

The mouth of the Singapore River was the old Port of Singapore, being naturally sheltered by the southern islands. Historically, the city of Singapore initially grew around the port so the river mouth became the centre of trade, commerce and finance. To this day, area around the old Singapore River mouth, the Downtown Core, remains the most expensive and economically important piece of land in Singapore. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 852 KB) Summary Boat Quay. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 852 KB) Summary Boat Quay. ... The Port of Singapore refers to the collective facilities and terminals that conduct maritime trade handling functions in Singapores harbours and which handle Singapores shipping. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... Commerce is the trading of something of economic value such as goods, services, information or money between two or more entities. ... Finance studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses, and organizations raise, allocate, and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. ... For the Second World War frigate class, see River class frigate The Murray River in Australia A waterfall on the Ova da Fedoz, Switzerland A river is a large natural waterway. ... The Downtown Core is technically an urban planning area in the city-state of Singapore which surrounds the mouth of the Singapore River, and is part of the Central Area, Singapores central business district. ...

At one time, Singapore River was the very lifeblood of the colony, the trade artery, the centre of commercial activity, the heart of entrepot trade and the place which was frequented by the secret societies, the swaylos (Cantonese for coolies who worked on a boat) and the coolies who worked for the philanthropist Tan Tock Seng at Ellenborough Market and the towkay (Hokkien for business owner) Tan Kim Seng who was busy filling his godown with the riches of the East. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... Commerce is the trading of something of economic value such as goods, services, information or money between two or more entities. ... An entrepôt is a trading centre, or simply a warehouse, where merchandise can be imported and re-exported without paying import duties. ... A secret society is a social organization that requires its members to conceal certain activities—such as rites of initiation or club ceremonies—from outsiders. ... Cantonese is a major dialect group or language of the Chinese language, a member of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. ... Coolie labourer circa 1900 in Zhenjiang, China. ... Someone who practices Philanthropy. ... Tan Tock Seng Tan Tock Seng (é™³ç¯¤ç”Ÿ, 1798-1850) is a merchant and philanthropist. ... Mǐn N n (Chinese: 閩南語), also spelt as Minnan or Min-nan; native name B ; literally means Southern Min or Southern Fujian and refers to the local language/dialect of southern Fujian province, China. ... The Tan Kim Seng Fountain at Esplanade Park was built to commemorate Tan Kim Sengs contribution towards Singapores first public waterworks. ... Inside Green Logistics Co. ...

Singapore River is where the colourful and romantic history of the river and the myths and legends can still conjure up memories of the lighters, bumboats, tongkangs with their painted eyes to see the danger ahead and sampans of yesteryear. This is where the Malayan princes once sailed and this is where the bullock carts plodded their way up and down each bank as the river found its way to the former rocky river mouth. This is also where an early civilisation was conquered by the Javanese Majapahit Empire, in the year 1376. // For the Derek Sherinian album, see Mythology (Derek Sherinian album). ... A legend (Latin, legenda, things to be read) is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. ... Lighter riding the current under Tower Bridge, London, circa 1928 A lighter is a type of flat-bottomed barge used to transfer goods to and from moored ships. ... A sampan carrying passengers to the outlying islands off the Sai Kung Peninsula in Hong Kong Sampan on the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), China A sampan (èˆ¢èˆ¨) is a relatively flat bottomed Chinese wooden boat from twelve to fifteen feet long. ... Three-quarter scale bronze sculptures 19th C. Malay people, Indonesia, Borneo. ... The term prince, from the Latin root princeps, is used for the member of the highest aristocracy. ... Bullock may refer to: bullock or ox, castrated male cattle Sandra Bullock, actress Alan Bullock, historian This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... A simple wooden cart in Australia A cart transporting watermelons in Harbin, China. ... The rocky side of a mountain creek near OrosÃ, Costa Rica. ... For other uses, see Civilization (disambiguation). ... Javanese is a term used to describe a native of the Indonesian island of Java. ... The Majapahit Empire was an Indianized kingdom based in eastern Java from 1293 to around 1500. ... // Events March â€“ The treaty between England and France is extended until April of 1377. ...

It was here too that the Chinese lived, on the south bank, the Malays in kampongs further upstream, and the Indians used to reside until the Chinese forced them out to Rochor, Kallang and Geylang. Three-quarter scale bronze sculptures 19th C. Malay people, Indonesia, Borneo. ... Kampong or kampung is a word in Malay and Indonesian language which means village. The word is also a common title for names of places in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore which, although modern, retains the word kampong for historical purposes. ... Kallang is an urban planning area and a subdivision located in the southeastern part of Singapore. ... Geylang Road Geylang is a neighbourhood in the city-state of Singapore east of the Central Area, Singapores central business district. ...

Some of the temples, shrines and other places of worship still stand in the vicinity of the river. So too are the godowns, the bridges such as Anderson Bridge, Elgin Bridge and Cavenagh Bridge, the Merlion, the shophouses, and the large trees such as Banyan and Madras Thorn. Some parts of this area include quays such as Clarke Quay and Boat Quay, which generated trade and extensive demand for services with the boats that landed at the quays. Boat Quay itself was handling three quarters of the shipping service in the 1860s. Shophouses and warehouses flourished around the quays due to their proximity to trade during the colonial era, but presently house various bars, pubs and restaurants, as well as antique shops. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 532 KB) Summary Cavenagh Bridge, Singapore Taken by User:Sengkang of ENglish. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 532 KB) Summary Cavenagh Bridge, Singapore Taken by User:Sengkang of ENglish. ... Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) For other uses, see Temple (disambiguation). ... Eastern Orthodox shrine Buddhist shrine just outside Wat Phnom. ... Places of worship are buildings or other locations where religious persons may worship their deity, regularly or not. ... This article is about the edifice (including an index to articles on specific bridge types). ... Anderson Bridge spans across the Singapore River and is located near the rivers mouth in the Downtown Core Planning Area. ... Elgin Bridge spans across the Singapore River and links Downtown Core to the Singapore River Planning Area. ... Cavenagh Bridge is the only suspension bridge and one of the oldest bridges in Singapore, spanning the lower reaches of the Singapore River in the Downtown Core. ... The Merlion is one of the most well-known tourist icons of Singapore. ... A shophouse is a type of building found in Singapore, Malaysia and throughout much of Southeast Asia, predominantly housing Chinese merchans, craftsmen and their families. ... The coniferous Coast Redwood, the tallest tree species on earth. ... Species Many; see text for examples Banyan (genus Ficus, subgenus Urostigma) is a subgenus of many species of tropical figs with an unusual growth habit. ... A quay, pronounced key, is a wharf or bank where ships and other vessels are loaded. ... Clarke Quay today Clarke Quay is a historical riverside quay in Singapore, located within the Singapore River Planning Area. ... Boat Quay Boat Quay is a historical quay in Singapore which is situated upstream from the mouth of the Singapore River on its southern bank. ... The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). ... Damaged package The Panama canal. ... // The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is built in the six year period between 1863 and 1869. ... A shophouse is a type of building found in Singapore, Malaysia and throughout much of Southeast Asia, predominantly housing Chinese merchans, craftsmen and their families. ... Inside Green Logistics Co. ... Tourists sit outside a bar in Chiang Mai, Thailand A Depression-era bar in Louisiana. ... A thatched pub (The Williams Arms) at Wrafton, near Braunton, North Devon, England The Kings Arms Pub in Sandford-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. ... Toms Restaurant, a restaurant in New York made familiar by Suzanne Vega and the television sitcom Seinfeld A restaurant is an establishment that serves prepared food and beverages to order, to be consumed on the premises. ... Antique can stand for any of several things: An antique is an object, often furniture or any other domestic item, that is highly valued because of its age, or because it belongs to a specific time period. ...

The river still borders places where seamen and others, for example, near Raffles Landing Place, made offerings and burned their joss sticks. Poles with streamers flying were once used to tie up the barges as the water lapped against the old stone steps and walls. The office towers at Raffles Place on the south bank of the Singapore River serve as a backdrop against Sir Stamford Raffles statue located at Raffles Landing Site on the rivers opposite bank. ... Joss is a name shared by different things: JOSS, a time-sharing operating system Joss, a Chinese god or his idol. ... Self propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stone A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. ... The rocky side of a mountain creek near OrosÃ, Costa Rica. ... Spiral (double helix) stairway in the Vatican Museum Stairs, staircase, stairway, stairwell, and flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. ... WALL is a radio station licenced to Middletown, New York that serves Orange County, New York. ...

Sir Stamford Raffles lost no time after January 1819, when he landed on Singapore River among the orang laut and the human skulls, the victims of river pirates, in bargaining with the Temenggong, the Johor chief who then ruled the place, having settled in 1811. At the very moment of landing, Raffles must have realised the importance of the river for, in the same year of 1819, the north bank was drained for government buildings and, in 1822, the south bank was reclaimed and a retaining wall and steps were built. Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (6 July 1781 - 5 July 1826) was the founder of the city (now country) of Singapore, and is one of the best-known of the many Britons who created the largest empire the world has ever seen. ... 1819 common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Orang Laut are a group of Malay people living in the Riau Islands of Indonesia. ... For symbolic or mythic uses of the human skull, see Skull (symbolism). ... This article is about sea pirates. ... An ancient Malay title of nobility, usually given to the chief of public security. ... State Motto: Kepada Allah berserah (English: all hopes is to God (Allah) Capital Johor Bahru Royal Capital Pasir Pelangi Sultan Sultan Iskandar Al-Haj Chief minister Dato Abdul Ghani Othman Area 19,984 kmÂ² Population 3. ... 1811 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1819 common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1822 (MDCCCXXII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... To reclaim something is the political process and strategy consisting in re-evaluating and re-appropriating terms that in the dominant culture are used to oppress minorities. ... Structure in the foreground is called a mud box - a kind of retaining wall built to hold the flood waters in check. ...

With the expansion of trade came congestion and pollution. Through lack of knowledge or foresight, the bridges were constructed too low and the river was too shallow for the demands that were to be made on its use. This historic river, which Raffles had fashioned from salt marshes, sand bars and mangrove swamps, has witnessed the British occupation and the Japanese occupation, and has supported years of economic activity by the Chinese, Malays, Indians and others. Congestion is a state of excessive accumulation or overfilling or overcrowding. ... Pollution is the release of environmental contaminants. ... This article is about the edifice (including an index to articles on specific bridge types). ... Freshwater marsh in Florida In geography, a marsh is a type of wetland, featuring grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, cat tails, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water. ... In geography, a bar is a linear shoaling landform feature within a body of water. ... Mangrove swamps are a characteristic for the tropical and subtropical coasts. ... The Japanese Occupation of Singapore was to become a major turning point in the history of several nations, including that of the Japanese, who rampaged down the Malay Peninsula with the singular intent of occupying Singapore to gain greater control over her war-time resource gathering efforts, the British, with...

Pollution and cleanup

Starting in the 1880s, there was heavy traffic on the Singapore River due to rapid urbanization and expanding trade. At the same time, it brought in water pollution caused by the disposal of garbage, sewage and other by-products of industries located along the river's banks. The sources of water pollution into the Singapore River and Kallang Basin included pig wastes from pig and duck farms, unsewered premises, street hawkers and vegetable wholesaling. Riverine activities such as transport, boat building and repairs were also found along the Singapore River. Some 750 lighters plied along the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in 1977. Waste, oil spills and wastewater from these boats and lighters added to the pollution of the rivers. // Development and commercial production of electric lighting Development and commercial production of gasoline-powered automobile by Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Maybach First commercial production and sales of phonographs and phonograph recordings. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... Water pollution Water pollution is a large set of adverse effects upon water bodies (lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater) caused by human activities. ... Sewage is the liquid water produced by human society which typically contains washing water, laundry waste, faeces, urine and other liquid or semi-liquid wastes. ... The bed of this stream is made up of rocks, some very rounded (having had a longer life in the stream) and some not. ... Kallang is an urban planning area and a subdivision located in the southeastern part of Singapore. ... This article is about the pig genus. ... // Subfamilies Dendrocygninae Oxyurinae Anatinae Merginae Duck is the common name for a number of species in the Anatidae family of birds. ... Vegetables in a market Venn diagram representing the relationship between (botanical) fruits and vegetables. ... Categories: Geographical term stubs ... Traditional boat building in South East Maluku, Indonesia. ... Lighter riding the current under Tower Bridge, London, circa 1928 A lighter is a type of flat-bottomed barge used to transfer goods to and from moored ships. ... For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill An oil spill(also called a oil slick) is the unintentional release of oil (generally, petroleum) into the natural environment as a result of human activity. ... Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. ...

In 1977, Lee Kuan Yew, then the Prime Minister put forth an ambitious goal for the government to clean up the Singapore River and Kallang Basin: "and in ten years let us have fishing in the Singapore River and Kallang River. It can be done." For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... This is a Chinese name; the family name is æŽ (Li). ... The Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore is the head of government of the Republic of Singapore (and prior to 9 August 1965, the State of Singapore). ...

By October 1977, an action plan on "The Clean-up of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin" was submitted to the Prime Minister. By late 1977, the government was starting to take action to clean up the river. The plan involved the development of infrastructure such as housing, industrial workshops and sewage; massive resettlement of squatters, backyard trades and industries and farmers; re-siting of street hawkers to food centres; and phasing out of pollutive activities. Industries located by the river were removed and squatters were resettled into flats. Refuse was collected daily for incineration, while hawkers were issued licenses and provided specified areas with proper sewerage amenities. The dredging of the river bed and the removal of hundreds of tons of debris which had been piled up over the years helped marine life to return to the tidal river. For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... Houses in Fishpool Street, St Albans, England For other meanings of the word house, see House (disambiguation). ... Sewage is the liquid water produced by human society which typically contains washing water, laundry waste, faeces, urine and other liquid or semi-liquid wastes. ... To squat is to occupy an unoccupied or abandoned space or building that the individual does not own, rent, or otherwise have permission to use. ... Hawkers, a name given to road-side vendors in India. ... Pollution is the release of environmental contaminants. ... To squat is to occupy an unoccupied or abandoned space or building that the individual does not own, rent, or otherwise have permission to use. ... An apartment estate in Singapore; such blocks make up the majority of public housing in Singapore. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Dredging is the process by which either new waterways are created or existing waterways are deepened. ... The bed of this stream is made up of rocks, some very rounded (having had a longer life in the stream) and some not. ... Marine biology is the study of animal and plant life within saltwater ecosystems. ... This article is about tides in the ocean. ...

Ten years later in 1987, the clean-up of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin was completed. In September 1987, the Ministry of the Environment together with other government ministries and statutory boards celebrated the success of the clean-up with an event called the "Clean Rivers Commemoration". After the massive clean-up, people can now engage in activities such as wayang performances on a bumboat, variety shows staged on pontoons anchored in the river, and boat races. Today, speedboats, dragon boats, pedal-boats and sampans can be seen plying on the clean waterways of the Singapore River. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 578 KB) Summary Coleman Bridge, Singapore. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 578 KB) Summary Coleman Bridge, Singapore. ... A New York Water Taxi docks at Pier 11 near Wall Street. ... 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Environment Building on Scotts Road, headquarters of the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources. ... Wayang is an Indonesian/Malay word for theater. ... A pontoon boat, like this small pleasure boat, typically floats and balances by means of two pontoons oriented in the direction of travel. ... Categories: Stub | Boat types ... A dragon boat at the Stanley Dragon Boat Festival, Hong Kong, China A Dragon boat (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: ) is a very long and narrow human powered boat used in the team paddling sport of Dragon boat racing which originated in China. ... A sampan carrying passengers to the outlying islands off the Sai Kung Peninsula in Hong Kong Sampan on the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), China A sampan (èˆ¢èˆ¨) is a relatively flat bottomed Chinese wooden boat from twelve to fifteen feet long. ...

Singapore River today

There have been plans announced by the government of Singapore recently to dam the Singapore River at its outlet to the sea to create a new reservoir of freshwater. While damming this area would create a valuable source of fresh water for the tiny city-state, it would prevent the docking of ocean-going ships at the Singapore River which was arguably the original reason Singapore came into existence. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 568 KB) See commons description for image info & licensing. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 568 KB) See commons description for image info & licensing. ... Clarke Quay today Clarke Quay is a historical riverside quay in Singapore, located within the Singapore River Planning Area. ... The Government of Singapore is formed by the political party which gains a 50% majority in the general elections held in Singapore at least once every five years. ... The Ashokan Reservoir, located in Ulster County, New York, USA. It is one of 19 that supplies New York City with drinking water. ... For the village on the Isle of Wight, see Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Italian ship-rigged vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large, sea-going watercraft. ...

Whereas the original mouth of the Singapore River emptied into Singapore Straits and its southern islands before major land reclamation took place, the Singapore River now empties into Marina Bay - an area of water partially enclosed by the reclamation work. The Port of Singapore is now located to the west of the island, using most of the south-west coast, and passenger ships to Singapore now typically berth at the Singapore Cruise Centre at HarbourFront. Thus the Singapore River's economic role has shifted away from one that of trade, towards more a role accommodated for tourism and aesthetics for the commercial zone which encloses it. The Singapore Strait, as seen from East Coast Park. ... Land reclamation is either of two distinct practices. ... Marina Bay (Chinese: æ»¨æµ·æ¹¾, Mandarin Pronunciation: Binhaiwan) is a bay near the Central Area in the southern part of Singapore, and lies to the east of the Downtown Core. ... A passenger ship is a ship whose primary function is to carry passengers. ... Singapore Cruise Centre Arrival hall The Singapore Cruise Centre (abbrev: SCC; Chinese: æ–°åŠ å¡é‚®è½®ä¸å¿ƒ) is a cruise terminal located in the south of Singapore in the vicinity of HarbourFront and in Keppel Harbour. ... Harbourfront is a waterfront tourist, residential and cultural real estate development on the northern shore of Lake Ontario within the downtown core of the city of Toronto, Canada. ... Orchids at the Singapore Botanic Gardens. ... The Parthenons facade showing an interpretation of golden rectangles in its proportions. ...

Download high resolution version (4693x1442, 1274 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (4693x1442, 1274 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Reference

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External links

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Categories: Bridges in Singapore | Singapore River | Rivers of Singapore | Central Area | Visitor attractions in Singapore | Downtown Core Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 532 KB) Summary Cavenagh Bridge, Singapore Taken by User:Sengkang of ENglish. ... Alkaff Bridge Alkaff Bridge (Chinese: é˜¿å°”å¡å¤«è¡Œäººæ¡¥) is a pedestrian bridge in Singapore. ... Anderson Bridge spans across the Singapore River and is located near the rivers mouth in the Downtown Core Planning Area. ... Cavenagh Bridge is the only suspension bridge and one of the oldest bridges in Singapore, spanning the lower reaches of the Singapore River in the Downtown Core. ... For other uses, see Coleman Bridge (disambiguation). ... Elgin Bridge spans across the Singapore River and links Downtown Core to the Singapore River Planning Area. ... Ord Bridge spans over the Singapore River. ... Read Bridge Read Bridge (Chinese: æŽå¾·æ¡¥) is a beam-structured bridge located at Clarke Quay within the Singapore River Planning Area in Singapore. ...

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