Sir Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait.
Born
4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England
Died
31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727 Kensington, London

Sir Isaac Newton, President of the Royal Society, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727] was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, chemist, inventor, and natural philosopher who is generally regarded as one of the most influential scientists and mathematicians in history. Image File history File links LinkFA-star. ... Godfrey Knellers portrait of Isaac Newton (1689) oil on canvas. ... Sir Godfrey Kneller (August 8, 1646 -October 19, 1723) was an artist, court painter to several British monarchs. ... January 4 is the 4th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... In Britain and countries of the British Empire, Old Style or O.S. after a date means that the date is in the Julian calendar, in use in those countries until 1752; New Style or N.S. means that the date is in the Gregorian calendar, adopted on 14 September... // Events January 21 - Abel Tasman discovers Tonga February 6 - Abel Tasman discovers the Fiji islands. ... Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth is a hamlet in the parish of Colsterworth, in the English county of Lincolnshire, best known as the birthplace of the scientist, philosopher, alchemist, and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton. ... Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the East Midlands of England. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked... March 31 is the 90th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (91st in Leap years), with 275 days remaining. ... In Britain and countries of the British Empire, Old Style or O.S. after a date means that the date is in the Julian calendar, in use in those countries until 1752; New Style or N.S. means that the date is in the Gregorian calendar, adopted on 14 September... Events 1727 to 1800 - Lt. ... Kensington is an area to the west of Central London in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. ... } London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England and is the most populous city in the European Union. ... The President of the Royal Society (PRS) is the elected head of the Royal Society of London. ... January 4 is the 4th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events January 21 - Abel Tasman discovers Tonga February 6 - Abel Tasman discovers the Fiji islands. ... March 31 is the 90th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (91st in Leap years), with 275 days remaining. ... Events 1727 to 1800 - Lt. ... In Britain and countries of the British Empire, Old Style or O.S. after a date means that the date is in the Julian calendar, in use in those countries until 1752; New Style or N.S. means that the date is in the Gregorian calendar, adopted on 14 September... December 25 is the 359th day of the year (360th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 6 days remaining. ... Events January 4 - Charles I attempts to arrest five leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escape. ... March 20 is the 79th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (80th in Leap years). ... Events 1727 to 1800 - Lt. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked... Euclid, detail from The School of Athens by Raphael. ... Physics is the Science of Nature The word Physics comes from the Greek, φύσις (physis) which means nature (or from its adjective form φυσικός (physikos) meaning natural) The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... Radio telescopes are among many different tools used by astronomers Astronomy (Greek: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος, astronomia = astron + nomos, literally, law of the stars) is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere, such as stars, planets, comets, auroras, galaxies, and the cosmic background radiation. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Chemistry (derived from alchemy) is the science of matter at or near the atomic scale. ... An inventor is a person who creates new inventions, typically technical devices such as mechanical, electrical or software devices or methods. ... Natural philosophy is a term applied to the objective study of nature and the physical universe before the development of modern science. ... For a List of scientists, see: List of anthropologists List of astronomers List of biologists List of chemists List of computer scientists List of economists List of engineers List of geologists List of inventors List of mathematicians List of meteorologists List of physicists Scientist pairs List of scientist pairs See... A mathematician is a person whose area of study and research is mathematics. ...

Newton wrote the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in which he described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and deterministic power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution and the advancement of heliocentrism. Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Gravity. ... Newtons First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 edition of the Principia Mathematica. ... Classical mechanics is a branch of physics which studies the deterministic motion of objects. ... Johannes Keplers primary contributions to astronomy/astrophysics were his three laws of planetary motion. ... Celestial mechanics is a division of astronomy dealing with the motions and gravitational effects of celestial objects. ... Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. ... In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, and ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton. ... Heliocentric Solar System In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ...

Among other scientific discoveries, Newton realized that the spectrum of colours observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century), and notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also developed a law of cooling, describing the rate of cooling of objects when exposed to air. He enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. Finally, he studied the speed of sound in air, and voiced a theory of the origin of stars. Despite this renown in mainstream science, Newton spent more time working on either alchemy or chemistry rather than physics. Color is an important part of the visual arts. ... White is a color, (more accurately it contains all the colors of the visible spectrum and is sometimes described as an achromatic color—black is the absence of color) that has high brightness but zero hue. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths that are studied in the field of optics. ... Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum Roger Bacon (c. ... In physics, wave-particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles. ... Heat flow along perfectly insulated wire Conduction is the transfer of heat or electric current from one substance to another by direct contact. ... In classical mechanics momentum (pl. ... Gyroscope. ... The speed of sound c (from Latin celeritas, velocity) varies depending on the medium through which the sound waves pass. ...

Newton played a major role in the history of calculus, sharing credit with Gottfried Leibniz. He also made contributions to other areas of mathematics, for example the generalized binomial theorem. The mathematician and mathematical physicist Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813), said that "Newton was the greatest genius that ever existed and the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish." ²⁰ // Overview Though the origins of integral calculus are generally regarded as going no farther back than to the ancient Greeks, there is evidence that the ancient Egyptians may have harbored such knowledge amongst themselves as well (see Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri). ... Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also von Leibni(t)z)[1] (July 1 (June 21 Old Style) 1646, Leipzig – November 14, 1716, Hanover) was a German polymath of Sorbian origin, deemed a universal [1] genius in his day and since. ... In mathematics, the binomial theorem is an important formula giving the expansion of powers of sums. ... Mathematical physics is the scientific field in between mathematics and physics; it studies the problems inspired by physics within a mathematically rigorous framework. ... Joseph Louis Lagrange Joseph Louis Lagrange (January 25, 1736 – April 10, 1813; born Giuseppe Luigi Lagrangia in Turin, Lagrange moved to Paris (1787) and became a French citizen, adopting the French translation of his name, Joseph Louis Lagrange) was an Italian-French mathematician and astronomer who made important contributions to...

Biography

Early years

Main article: Isaac Newton's early life and achievements

Newton was born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth (at Woolsthorpe Manor), a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. Newton was born prematurely, and no one expected him to live; indeed, his mother, Hannah Ayscough Newton, is reported to have said that his body at that time could have fit inside a quart mug (Bell, 1937). His father, also named Isaac, had been a farmer and had died three months before Newton's birth. When Newton was two, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother. The following article is part of an in-depth biography of Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727), the English mathematician and scientist, author of the Principia. ... The years 1685 and 1686 will ever be memorable in the history of science. ... During his residence in London, Newton had made the acquaintance of John Locke. ... Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Knellers 1689 portrait The law of gravity became Sir Isaac Newtons best-known discovery. ... The unpublished work of Isaac Newton included much that would now be classified as occult studies. ... The following article is part of an in-depth biography of Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727), the English mathematician and scientist, author of the Principia. ... Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth is a hamlet in the parish of Colsterworth, in the English county of Lincolnshire, best known as the birthplace of the scientist, philosopher, alchemist, and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton. ... Woolsthorpe Manor, Birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton Woolsthorpe Manor in Lincolnshire, England, was the birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton on December 25, 1642 (old calendar). ... A hamlet is (usually — see below) a small settlement, too small or unimportant to be considered a village. ... Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the East Midlands of England. ... Premature birth (also known as preterm birth, or premie) is defined medically as childbirth occurring earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation. ...

According to E.T. Bell (1937, Simon and Schuster) and H. Eves: Eric Temple Bell (1883 - 1960) was a mathematician born in Scotland who lived in the USA from 1903 until his death. ...

Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to The Kings Grammar School (Grantham) where he became the top boy in the school. At Kings he lodged with the local apothecary, William Clarke and eventually became engaged to the apothecary's stepdaughter, Anne Storer, before he went off to Cambridge University at the age of 19. As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storer married someone else. It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded 'sweethearts' and never married.

However, William Stukeley and Mrs Vincent, the source which Bell and Eves have embroidered so unhelpfully, merely say that Newton entertained 'a passion' for her while he lodged at the Clarke house. Mrs Vincent's maiden name was Katherine Storer, not Anne. The Kings School, is an English educational institution in Grantham, Lincolnshire with an unbroken history on the same site since the date of its endowment as one of the last acts of Bishop Richard Fox, in 1528. ... The word Kings is the plural of king, a male ruler. ... A historical re-enactor protraying a 19th century apothecary in Old Salem, North Carolina. ... William Clarke was the apothecary who provided lodgings for a young Sir Isaac Newton whilst he attended Grantham grammar school. ... The University of Cambridge (often called Cambridge University), located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. ...

Engraving after Enoch Seeman's 1726 portrait of Newton

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School in Grantham (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school and by Oct 1659 he was to be found at Woolsthorpe where his mother attempted to make a farmer of him. He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the work. It appears to be Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final report. His teacher said: PD image from http://www. ... PD image from http://www. ... Grantham Grammar School, also known as The Kings School, is an English educational institution in Grantham, Lincolnshire with an unbroken history on the same site since the date of its endowment as one of the last acts of Bishop Richard Fox, in 1528. ...

His genius now begins to mount upwards apace and shine out with more strength. He excels particularly in making verses. In everything he undertakes, he discovers an application equal to the pregnancy of his parts and exceeds even the most sanguine expectations I have conceived of him.

In June 1661 he matriculated to Trinity College, Cambridge. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler. In 1665 he discovered the generalized binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the Great Plague. For the next 18 months Newton worked at home on calculus, optics and law of gravitation. Newton often did not share information he had discovered unless he was asked, calculus for example, he invented 30 years before he had told anyone else about it. Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names Kings Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street... Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Aristotélēs 384 – March 7, 322 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... For other things named Descartes, see Descartes (disambiguation). ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a scientist whose area of research is astronomy or astrophysics. ... Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans. ... Nicolaus Copernicus (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was an astronomer who provided the first modern formulation of a heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of the solar system in his epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). ... Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630), a key figure in the scientific revolution, was a German mathematician, astrologer, astronomer, and an early writer of science fiction stories. ... In mathematics, the binomial theorem is an important formula giving the expansion of powers of sums. ... Integral and differential calculus is a central branch of mathematics, developed from algebra and geometry. ... The Great Plague (AD 1665-1666) was a massive outbreak of disease in Britain that killed 75,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of Londons population. ... Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ...

Middle years

Mathematical research

Newton became a fellow of Trinity College in 1669. In the same year he circulated his findings in De Analysi per Aequationes Numeri Terminorum Infinitas (On Analysis by Infinite Series), and later in De methodis serierum et fluxionum (On the Methods of Series and Fluxions), whose title gave rise to the "method of fluxions". Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names Kings Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street...

Newton and Gottfried Leibniz developed the calculus independently, using different notations. Although Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Moreover, Leibniz's notation and "differential Method" were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British Empire. Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for it. Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. Thus began the bitter calculus priority dispute with Leibniz, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716. This dispute created a divide between British and Continental mathematicians that may have retarded the progress of British mathematics by at least a century. As for who really invented calculus first, a good argument can be made that it was Madhava of Sangamagrama, who lived in southern India in the late Middle Ages, a fact unknown to the Europeans of that time, though it is possible some of the knowledge percolated westward. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also von Leibni(t)z)[1] (July 1 (June 21 Old Style) 1646, Leipzig – November 14, 1716, Hanover) was a German polymath of Sorbian origin, deemed a universal [1] genius in his day and since. ... The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... Isaac Newton began working on a form of the calculus in 1666. ... Madhava (माधव) of Sangamagrama (1350-1425) was a major mathematician from Kerala, South India. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

Newton is generally credited with the generalized binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He discovered new formulae for pi. In mathematics, the binomial theorem is an important formula giving the expansion of powers of sums. ... In mathematics, Newtons identities relate two different ways of describing the roots of a polynomial. ... In numerical analysis, Newtons method (or the Newton-Raphson method) is an efficient algorithm for finding approximations to the zeros (or roots) of a real-valued function. ... There are two subfields of mathematics that concern themselves with finite differences. ... In mathematics, a Diophantine equation is an equation between two polynomials with integer coefficients with any number of unknowns. ... Lower-case π (the lower case letter is usually used for the constant) The mathematical constant π is an irrational number, approximately equal to 3. ...

He was elected Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1669. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford had to be an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted. The incumbent of the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, the Lucasian Professor is the holder of a mathematical professorship at Cambridge University. ... Euclid, detail from The School of Athens by Raphael. ... The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford in England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was the King of England, King of Scots, and King of Ireland from 30 January 1649 (de jure) or 29 May 1660 (de facto) until his death. ...

Optics

From 1670 to 1672 he lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident already-coloured light, not the result of objects generating the colour. For more details, see Newton's theory of colour. Many of his findings in this field were criticized by later theorists, the most well-known being Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who postulated his own colour theories. Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... The straw seems to be broken, due to refraction of light as it emerges into the air. ... Prism splitting light Light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength that is visible to the eye (visible light) or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths that are studied in the field of optics. ... If a shaft of light entering a prism is sufficiently small such that the coloured edges meet, a spectrum results In optics, a prism is a device used to refract light, reflect it or break it up (to disperse it) into its constituent spectral colours (colours of the rainbow). ... Alternate meanings: White (disambiguation) White is a color (more accurately it contains all the colors of the spectrum and is sometimes described as an achromatic color—black is the absence of color) that has high brightness but zero hue. ... The visible spectrum is the portion of the optical spectrum (light or electromagnetic spectrum) that is visible to the human eye. ... A lens. ... The following article is part of an in-depth biography of Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727), the English mathematician and scientist, author of the Principia. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. ...

A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal Society.

From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today, known as a Newtonian telescope) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. (Only later, as glasses with a variety of refractive properties became available, did achromatic lenses for refractors become feasible.) In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death. Download high resolution version (1024x891, 118 KB)A replica of Isaac Newtons telescope of 1672. ... Download high resolution version (1024x891, 118 KB)A replica of Isaac Newtons telescope of 1672. ... The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... 50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory. ... Dispersion of a light beam in a prism. ... Newtonian Telescope The Newtonian telescope is a type of reflecting telescope invented by the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), using a parabolic primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. ... The phenomenon of Newtons rings is an interference pattern caused by the reflection of light between two surfaces - a spherical surface and an adjacent flat surface. ... Quality refers to the distinctive characteristics or properties of a person, object, process or other thing. ... Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics (appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... A lens. ... The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... A portrait, claimed by historian Lisa Jardine to be of Robert Hooke Robert Hooke, FRS (July 18, 1635 - March 3, 1703) was an English polymath who played an important role in the scientific revolution, through both experimental and theoretical work. ...

In one experiment, to prove that colour perception is caused by pressure on the eye, Newton slid a darning needle around the side of his eye until he could poke at its rear side, dispassionately noting "white, darke & coloured circles" so long as he kept stirring with "y^e bodkin."

Newton argued that light is composed of particles, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks Bk. II, Props. XII-XX). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics restores the idea of "wave-particle duality", although photons bear very little resemblance to Newton's corpuscles (e.g., corpuscles refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium). A wave is a disturbance that propagates through space, often transferring energy. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to Quantum mechanics. ... In physics, wave-particle duality holds that light and matter exhibit properties of both waves and of particles. ... In physics, the photon (from Greek φως, phōs, meaning light) is the quantum of the electromagnetic field; for instance, light. ...

(disputed — see talk page) Newton is believed to have been the first to explain precisely the formation of the rainbow from water droplets dispersed in the atmosphere in a rain shower. Figure 15 of Part II of Book One of the Opticks shows a perfect illustration of how this occurs. RAINBOW is an album by Ayumi Hamasaki. ... Layers of Atmosphere (NOAA) Air redirects here. ...

In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. Newton was in contact with Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist who was born in Grantham, on alchemy, and now his interest in the subject revived. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the magicians."²¹ Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.² (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.) Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.) The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a medium of aether that carries light In the late 19th century luminiferous aether (light-bearing aether) was the term used to describe a medium for the propagation of light. ... Henry More. ... The Cambridge Platonists were a group of divines at Cambridge University in England in the middle of the 17th century (between 1633 and 1688). ... Grantham aka G-Town is a small market town in Lincolnshire, England with about 38,000 inhabitants. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Hermes Trismegistus depicted in a medieval rendering. ... John Maynard Keynes (right) and Harry Dexter White at the Bretton Woods Conference John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes, CB (pronounced kānz / kAnze) (June 5, 1883 – April 21, 1946) was a British economist whose ideas had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In physics, action at a distance is the interaction of two objects which are separated in space with no known mediator of the interaction. ... The unpublished work of Isaac Newton included much that would now be classified as occult studies. ...

In 1704 Newton wrote Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another,...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"²² Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query). Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light Opticks is a book written by English physicist Isaac Newton that was released to the public in 1704. ... An electrostatic generator is a mechanical device that produces continuous current. ... Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colours as shown in this ball from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany. ...

Gravity and motion

Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition.

Further information: the writing of Principia Mathematica

In 1679, Newton returned to his work on mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of motion, and consulting with Hooke and Flamsteed on the subject. He published his results in De Motu Corporum (1684). This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the Principia. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1266x842, 646 KB)Isaac Newtons own first edition copy of his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica with his handwritten corrections for the second edition. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1266x842, 646 KB)Isaac Newtons own first edition copy of his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica with his handwritten corrections for the second edition. ... The years 1685 and 1686 will ever be memorable in the history of science. ... Classical mechanics is a branch of physics which studies the deterministic motion of objects. ... A planet is generally considered to be a relatively large mass of accreted matter in orbit around a star. ... Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630), a key figure in the scientific revolution, was a German mathematician, astrologer, astronomer, and an early writer of science fiction stories. ... Johannes Keplers primary contributions to astronomy/astrophysics were his three laws of planetary motion. ... John Flamsteed - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published on 5 July 1687¹ with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the force that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on Boyle's law, of the speed of sound in air. Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... July 5 is the 186th day of the year (187th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 179 days remaining. ... Events March 19 - The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. ... Portrait of Edmond Halley painted around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal Society, London) Portrait of Edmond Halley Bust of Edmond Halley in the Museum of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Edmond Halley (sometimes Edmund, November 8, 1656 – January 14, 1742) was an English astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... This article covers the physics of gravitation. ... Boyles law (sometimes known as the Boyle Mariotte law) is one of the gas laws. ... The speed of sound c (from Latin celeritas, velocity) varies depending on the medium through which the sound waves pass. ...

With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised. He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a nervous breakdown. Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1664-1753) was a Swiss mathematician and a Fellow of the Royal Society. ... Although not a medical term, the phrase nervous breakdown is often used outside medical circles to describe a sudden and acute attack of mental illness—for instance, clinical depression or anxiety disorder—in a previously outwardly healthy person. ...

Later life

A lock of Newton's hair in Trinity College, Cambridge.

For more details on this topic, see Isaac Newton's later life.

In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the infinity of the universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) — were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above)². A lock of Isaac Newtons hair taken in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge Description: A LOCK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTONs HAIR Allegedly part of a larger lock in the possession of the Earl of Portsmouth, and given to the Rev. ... A lock of Isaac Newtons hair taken in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge Description: A LOCK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTONs HAIR Allegedly part of a larger lock in the possession of the Earl of Portsmouth, and given to the Rev. ... Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names Kings Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street... During his residence in London, Newton had made the acquaintance of John Locke. ... The Gutenberg Bible owned by the United States Library of Congress The Bible (Hebrew: תנ״ך tanakh, Greek: η Βίβλος hÄ“ biblos) (sometimes The Holy Bible, The Book, Work of God, The Word, The Good Book or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βίβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, is the name used by Jews and Christians for their... Henry More. ... The word infinity comes from the Latin infinitas or unboundedness. It refers to several distinct concepts which arise in theology, philosophy, mathematics and everyday life. ... Cartesian dualism was Descartess principle of the separation of mind and matter and mind and body. ... John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an influential English philosopher and social contract theorist. ... For other uses, see Trinity (disambiguation). ...

Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be closed. The Parliament of England can trace its roots back to the early medieval period. ...

Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and finagling Edmond Halley into the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch). Newton became Master of the Mint upon Lucas' death in 1699. These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701. Ironically, it was his work at the Mint, rather than his contributions to science, which earned him a knighthood from Queen Anne in 1705. } London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England and is the most populous city in the European Union. ... The Royal Mint is the body permitted to manufacture, or mint, coins in the United Kingdom. ... Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax (April 16, 1661 - May 19, 1715) was Chancellor of the Exchequer, poet, statesman, and Earl of Halifax. ... The Rt. ... Portrait of Edmond Halley painted around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal Society, London) Portrait of Edmond Halley Bust of Edmond Halley in the Museum of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Edmond Halley (sometimes Edmund, November 8, 1656 – January 14, 1742) was an English astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist. ... Master of the Mint was an important office in the British government between the 16th and 19th centuries. ... A sinecure (from Latin sine, without, and cura, care) means an office which requires or involves little or no responsibility, labour, or active service. ... A statue of an armoured knight of the Middle Ages For the chess piece, see knight (chess). ... Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714) became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. ...

Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's star catalogue. The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... The French Academy of Sciences (Académie des sciences) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. ... John Flamsteed - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. ...

Newton's grave in Westminster Abbey

Newton died in London on March 20th, 1727, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt³, served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle" ⁴, according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1049x1399, 371 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Isaac Newton The Da Vinci Code Isaac Newtons later life Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1049x1399, 371 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Isaac Newton The Da Vinci Code Isaac Newtons later life Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to... } London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England and is the most populous city in the European Union. ... The Abbeys western façade The Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster, which is almost always referred to as Westminster Abbey, is a mainly Gothic church, on the scale of a cathedral, in Westminster, London, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. ... Catherine Barton (1679-?) was Isaac Newtons half-niece, and had a relationship with Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax after his wifes death in 1698. ... Jermyn Street is a street in central London, England, parallel and adjacent to Piccadilly that is famous for its resident shirtmakers. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious viral disease unique to humans. ...

After his death, Newton's body was discovered to have had massive amounts of mercury in it, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. [1]

In later years there has been some speculation that Newton had Asperger syndrome, a form of autism. See People speculated to have been autistic. Asperger syndrome, also called Aspergers syndrome, AS, or the more common shorthand Aspergers, is characterized as one of the five pervasive developmental disorders, and is commonly referred to as a form of high-functioning autism. ... Autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. ... A number of famous people have been speculated to have been autistic or Aspergers. ...

It has also been suggested that Isaac Newton may have died a virgin. There were no known romantic encounters during his lifetime. Also, Newton's prudent character and obsessive manner may have deterred the prospect of sexual encounters.

Religious views

Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)

Main article: Isaac Newton's religious views

The law of gravity became Newton's best-known discovery. He warned against using it to view the universe as a mere machine, like a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x1338, 331 KB) Sir Isaac Newton From: Sarah K. Bolton: Famous Men of Science (New York, 1889). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1000x1338, 331 KB) Sir Isaac Newton From: Sarah K. Bolton: Famous Men of Science (New York, 1889). ... Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Knellers 1689 portrait The law of gravity became Sir Isaac Newtons best-known discovery. ... The unpublished work of Isaac Newton included much that would now be classified as occult studies. ...

His scientific fame notwithstanding, Newton's study of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were among his greatest passions. He devoted more time to the study of the Scriptures, the Fathers, and to Alchemy than to science, and said, "I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily."^{[citation needed]} Newton himself wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. Newton also placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which is now the accepted traditional date. He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (See Bible code). Despite his focus in theology and alchemy, Newton tested and investigated these ideas with the scientific method, observing, hypothesizing, and testing his theories. To Newton, his scientific and religious experiments were one and the same, observing and understanding how the world functioned. The Gutenberg Bible owned by the United States Library of Congress The Bible (Hebrew: תנ״ך tanakh, Greek: η Βίβλος hÄ“ biblos) (sometimes The Holy Bible, The Book, Work of God, The Word, The Good Book or Scripture), from Greek (τα) βίβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, is the name used by Jews and Christians for their... The (Early) Church Fathers or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. ... For other uses, see Alchemy (disambiguation). ... Textual criticism is a branch of philology that examines the extant manuscript copies of an ancient or medieval literary work to produce a text that is as close as possible to the original. ... An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture is a dissertation by the English Mathematician and Scholar Isaac Newton. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... April 3 is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 272 days remaining. ... Events The following Christian chronology uses traditional dates set by biblical scholars; 30 and 28 are also suggested as a date for the Messianic events. ... Bible codes, also known as Torah codes, are words, phrases and clusters of words and phrases that some people believe are meaningful and exist intentionally in coded form in the text of the Bible. ... Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for the investigation of phenomena and the acquisition of new knowledge of the natural world, as well as the correction and integration of previous knowledge, based on observable, empirical, measurable evidence, and subject to laws of reasoning. ...

Newton rejected the church's doctrine of the trinity, and was probably a follower of arianism. In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that he more likely held the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most Protestants ⁷. In his own day, he was also accused of being a Rosicrucian (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).⁸ For other uses, see Trinity (disambiguation). ... This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Temple of the Rosy Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618 The Rosicrucians are a legendary and secretive order dating from the 15th or 17th century, generally associated with the symbol of the Rose Cross, which is also used in certain rituals of the Freemasons. ...

In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be regular. Hylozoism is the philosophical doctrine that all or some material things possess life. ... Steven de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677), named Stefan Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Espinosa or Bento dEspiñoza in his native Amsterdam, was a Dutch philosopher. ... Size of the universe and observable universe Main article: Observable universe There is disagreement over whether the universe is indeed finite or infinite in spatial extent and volume. ...

Newton's effect on religious thought

Newton, by William Blake

Newton and Robert Boyle’s mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.⁹ Thus, the clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism¹⁰, and, at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion." William Blakes Newton (1795), colour print with pen & ink and watercolour. ... William Blakes Newton (1795), colour print with pen & ink and watercolour. ... William Blake (1807) William Blake (November 28, 1757–August 12, 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. ... Robert Boyle The Honourable Robert Boyle (January 25, 1627 - December 30, 1691) was an Irish natural philosopher, noted for his work in physics and chemistry. ... This article is not about continental rationalism. ... A pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who creates or distributes pamphlets in order to get people to vote for their favourite politician or to articulate a particular political ideology. ... Pantheism (Greek: pan = all and Theos = God) literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Enthusiasm (Greek: enthousiasmos) originally meant inspiration or possession by a divine afflatus or by the presence of a god. ... Latitudinarian was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th century British theologians who believed in conforming to official Church of England practices but who felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A common European superstition dictates that it is bad luck for a black cat to cross ones path. ... Atheism, in its most inclusive sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. ... Historical and modern deism is defined by the view that reason and logic, rather than revelation or tradition, should be the basis of belief in God. ...

The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking," and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle’s mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle’s ideas their completion through mathematical proofs, and more importantly was very successful in popularising them.¹¹ Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.¹² These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed man to pursue his own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect himself with his own rational powers.¹³ The perceived ability of Newtonians to explain the world, both physical and social, through logical calculations alone is the crucial idea in the disenchantment of Christianity.¹⁴ The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason. ... Mysticism is the philosophy and practice of a direct experience of God. ... Size of the universe and observable universe Main article: Observable universe There is disagreement over whether the universe is indeed finite or infinite in spatial extent and volume. ... In mathematics, a proof is a demonstration that, assuming certain axioms, some statement is necessarily true. ... The afterlife (or life after death) is a generic term referring to a continuation of existence, typically spiritual and experiential, beyond this world, or after death. ...

Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation ⁵⁶¹⁴ But the unforeseen theological consequence of his conception of God, as Leibniz pointed out, was that God was now entirely removed from the world’s affairs, since the need for intervention would only evidence some imperfection in God’s creation, something impossible for a perfect and omnipotent creator.¹⁵ Leibniz's theodicy cleared God from the responsibility for "l'origine du mal" by making God removed from participation in his creation. The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.¹⁶ It has been suggested that Christian theological controversy be merged into this article or section. ... Omnipotence (literally, all power) is the power to do absolutely anything. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In the philosophy of religion and theology, the problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of evil or suffering in the world with the existence of an omniscient, omnipotent, omnibenevolent god. ...

On the other hand, latitudinarian and Newtonian ideas taken too far resulted in the millenarians, a religious faction dedicated to the concept of a mechanical universe, but finding in it the same enthusiasm and mysticism that the Enlightenment had fought so hard to extinguish.¹⁷ Millenarianism or millenarism is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society after which all things will be changed in a positive (or sometimes negative or ambiguous) direction. ... A faction is a group of people connected by a shared belief or opinion within a larger group. ...

Newton and the counterfeiters

As warden of the royal mint, Newton estimated that 20% of the coins taken in during The Great Recoinage were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was treason, punishable by death by drawing and quartering. Despite this, convictions of the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult to achieve; however, Newton proved to be equal to the task. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... In law, treason is the crime of disloyalty to ones nation or state. ... Drawing and quartering was part of the penalty once ordained in England for treason. ...

He assembled facts and proved his theories with the same brilliance in law that he had shown in science.^{[citation needed]} He gathered much of that evidence himself, disguised, while he hung out at bars and taverns. For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton was made a justice of the peace and between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 conducted some 200 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers and suspects. Newton later ordered all records of his interrogations to be destroyed.^{[citation needed]} Newton won his convictions and in February 1699, he had ten prisoners waiting to be executed. English law is a formal term of art that describes the law for the time being in force in England and Wales. ... A Justice of the Peace (JP) is an inferior magistrate appointed by means of a commission of the peace (mandate) to keep the peace. ...

Newton's greatest triumph as the king's attorney was against William Chaloner. One of Chaloner's schemes was to set up phoney conspiracies of Catholics and then turned in the hapless conspirators whom he entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited. All the time, he struck false coins, or so Newton eventually proved to a court of competent jurisdiction. On March 23, 1699, Chaloner was hanged, drawn and quartered.^{[citation needed]} The Parliament of England can trace its roots back to the early medieval period. ... March 23 is the 82nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (83rd in Leap years). ... Events January 26 - Treaty of Karlowitz signed March 30 - the tenth Sikh Master, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa. ... To be hanged, drawn, and quartered was the penalty once ordained in England for treason. ...

Enlightenment philosophers

Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.¹⁹ Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans. ... The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... It has been suggested that Anarchist law be merged into this article or section. ...

It was Newton’s conception of the universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became the seed for Enlightenment ideology. Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems and the sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress. An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an influential English philosopher and social contract theorist. ... The last of Voltaires statues by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1781). ... The Physiocrats were a group of thinkers who believed in an economic theory which considered that the wealth of nations was derived solely from agriculture. ... Adam Smith, FRSE, (baptised June 5, 1723 – July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... Psychology (Gk: psyche, soul or mind + logos, speech) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind, brain, and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... Self-interest can refer to these articles: Egoism Selfishness Ethical egoism Psychological egoism Individualism Objectivist ethics Hedonism Happiness Epicureanism Utilitarianism This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Social order is a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences. ... Progress can refer to: The idea of a process in which societies or individuals become better or more modern (technologically and/or socially). ...

Newton's legacy

Statue of Newton by Louis-François Roubiliac in the antechapel of Trinity College, Cambridge

Newton's laws of motion and gravity provided a basis for predicting a wide variety of different scientific or engineering situations, especially the motion of celestial bodies. His calculus proved vitally important to the development of further scientific theories. Finally, he unified many of the isolated physics facts that had been discovered earlier into a satisfying system of laws. Newton's conceptions of gravity and mechanics, though not entirely correct in light of Einstein's Theory of Relativity, still represent an enormous step in the evolution of human understanding of the universe. For this reason, he is generally considered one of history's greatest scientists. Download high resolution version (706x1024, 115 KB)Statue of Isaac Newton in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge. ... Download high resolution version (706x1024, 115 KB)Statue of Isaac Newton in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge. ... Louis-François Roubiliac (more correctly Roubillac) (1695 - January 11, 1762), French sculptor, was born at Lyons and became a pupil of Balthasar of Dresden and of Nicolas Coustou. ... Full name The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity Motto Virtus vera nobilitas Virtue is true Nobility Named after The Holy Trinity Previous names Kings Hall and Michaelhouse (until merged in 1546) Established 1546 Sister College(s) Christ Church Master The Lord Rees of Ludlow Location Trinity Street... Newtons First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 edition of the Principia Mathematica. ... ... Integral and differential calculus is a central branch of mathematics, developed from algebra and geometry. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Relativity: The Special and General Theory Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, or simply relativity, refers specifically to two theories: special relativity and general relativity. ...

In 1717, the Kingdom of Great Britain went on to an unofficial gold standard when Newton, then Master of the Mint, established a fixed price of £3.17.10 ½d per standard (22 carat) troy ounce, equal to £4.4.11 ½d per fine ounce. Under the gold standard the value of the pound (measured in gold weight) remained largely constant until the beginning of the 20th century. Royal motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right)1 Capital London Head of State King of Great Britain Head of Government Prime Minister Parliament House of Commons, House of Lords The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain (see below), was... This article is on the monetary principle. ... Troy weight is a system of units of mass customarily used for precious metals and gemstones. ... GBP redirects here. ...

Newton is reputed to have invented the cat flap. This was said to be done so that he would not have to disrupt his optical experiments, conducted in a darkened room, to let his cat in or out. A cat flap in action. ...

Newtonmas is a holiday celebrated by some scientists as an alternative to Christmas, taking advantage of the fact that Newton's birthday falls on 25 December. Newtonmas is a secular holiday celebrated on 25 December each year in honor of Sir Isaac Newtons birthday. ... Christmas (literally, the Mass of Christ) is a traditional Christian holiday meant to celebrate the birth of Jesus with both religious and secular aspects, commonly observed on 25 December. ... December 25 is the 359th day of the year (360th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 6 days remaining. ...

In July 1992, the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences was opened at Cambridge University - it is regarded as the United Kingdom's national institute for mathematical research. Opened in 1992, the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences is the United Kingdoms de facto national research institute for mathematics and theoretical physics. ...

To this day, Newton's achievements have been immortalized in popular culture. Almost all schoolchildren are familiar with the apocryphal story of Newton's apple and his subsequent discovery of gravity; even the likeness of Newton holding an apple under a tree is a well-known image of science. English poet Alexander Pope was sufficiently moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph: Alexander Pope, an English poet best known for his Essay on Criticism and Rape of the Lock Pope, circa 1727. ...

"Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said 'Let Newton be' and all was light."

Newton's Laws of Motion

Main article: Newton's Laws of Motion

The famous three laws of Newton are: Newtons First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 edition of the Principia Mathematica. ...

1. Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
2. Newton's Second Law states that an applied force equals the rate of change of momentum. For constant mass: F=ma, or force equals mass times acceleration. In other words, the acceleration produced by a net force on an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and inversely proportional to the mass. In the MKS system of measurement, mass is given in kilograms, acceleration in meters per second squared, and force in newtons (named in his honor).
3. Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental laws of classical physics which are used to describe the motion of matter and how it is affected by applied forces. ... Newtons first and second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 edition of the Principia Mathematica. ... In physics, a force is anything that causes a free body with mass to accelerate. ... Mass is a property of a physical object that quantifies the amount of matter it contains. ... Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity, and at any point on a v-t graph, it is given by the slope of the tangent to that point In physics, acceleration (symbol: a) is defined as the rate of change (or derivative with respect to time) of velocity. ... The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. ...

Newton's apple

A reputed descendant of Newton's apple tree, found in the Botanic Gardens in Cambridge, England.

A popular story claims that Newton was inspired to formulate his theory of universal gravitation by the fall of an apple from a tree. Cartoons have gone further to suggest the apple actually hit Newton's head, and that its impact somehow made him aware of the force of gravity. There is no basis to that interpretation, but the story of the apple may have something to it. John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the royal mint and husband of Newton's niece, described the event when he wrote about Newton's life: ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1232x1632, 326 KB) Summary A descendent of the tree from which an apple reputedly fell and inspired Isaac Newtons theory of gravitation. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1232x1632, 326 KB) Summary A descendent of the tree from which an apple reputedly fell and inspired Isaac Newtons theory of gravitation. ... Map of the Cambridgeshire area (1904) The city of Cambridge is an old English university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area – Total Ranked...

In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge ... to his mother in Lincolnshire & whilst he was musing in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition... (King's College, Cambridge, Keynes Ms. 130.4: Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge (c.1727-8) [2])

The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it universal gravitation. A contemporary writer, William Stukeley, recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726, in which Newton recalled "when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It was occasioned by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself. Why should it not go sideways or upwards, but constantly to the earth's centre." In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." These accounts are probably exaggerations of Newton's own tale about sitting by a window in his home (Woolsthorpe Manor) and watching an apple fall from a tree. Various trees are claimed to be 'the' apple tree which Newton describes, the King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later, the staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthrope Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. It is also claimed that the tree was replanted in front of the council buildings in Grantham, which is unlikely, considering that they were built over 300 years after Newton's death. William Stukeley (November 7, 1687–March 3, 1765) was an English antiquary who pioneered the archaeological investigation of Stonehenge and Avebury. ... April 15 is the 105th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (106th in leap years). ... Events George Friderich Handel becomes a British subject. ... The last of Voltaires statues by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1781). ... Woolsthorpe Manor, Birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton Woolsthorpe Manor in Lincolnshire, England, was the birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton on December 25, 1642 (old calendar). ... Grantham Grammar School, also known as The Kings School, is an English educational institution in Grantham, Lincolnshire with an unbroken history on the same site since the date of its endowment as one of the last acts of Bishop Richard Fox, in 1528. ... Grantham aka G-Town is a small market town in Lincolnshire, England with about 38,000 inhabitants. ... The standard of the National Trust The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, usually known as The National Trust, is a British preservation organization. ...

Writings by Newton

• Method of Fluxions (1671)
• De Motu Corporum in Gyrum (1684)
• Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
• Opticks (1704)
• Reports as Master of the Mint (1701-1725)
• Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
• An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)
• Short Chronicle, The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended and De mundi systemate were published posthumously in 1728.

Method of Fluxions was a book by Isaac Newton. ... De motu corporum in gyrum (On the motion of bodies in an orbit) is a manuscript by Isaac Newton sent to Edmund Halley in November 1684. ... Newtons own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition. ... Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light Opticks is a book written by English physicist Isaac Newton that was released to the public in 1704. ... Title page of the Arithmetica, published 1707 The English translation by Raphson was published in 1720 The Arithmetica Universalis was a mathematics text written by Isaac Newton. ... An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture is a dissertation by the English Mathematician and Scholar Isaac Newton. ...

Notes

• Note 1: The remainder of the dates in this article follow the Gregorian calendar.
• Note 2: Westfall (pp. 530–531) notes that Newton apparently abandoned his alchemical researches.
• Note 3: Westfall, p. 44.
• Note 4: Westfall, p. 595.
• Note 5: Principia, Book III; cited in; Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.
• Note 6: A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65.
• Note 7: Pfizenmaier, T.C., "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?" Journal of the History of Ideas 68(1):57–80, 1997.
• Note 8: Yates, Frances A. The Rosicrucian Enlightenment. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.
• Note 8: Jacob, Margaret C. The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720. p28.
• Note 9: Jacob, Margaret C. The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720. p37 and p44.
• Note 10: Westfall, Richard S. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. Yale University Press, New Haven: 1958. p200.
• Note 11: Fitzpatrick, Martin. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p64.
• Note 12: Frankel, Charles. The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment. King’s Crown Press, New York: 1948. p1.
• Note 13: Germain, Gilbert G. A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology. p28.
• Note 14: Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.
• Note 15: Westfall, Richard S. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. p201.
• Note 16: Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.
• Note 17: Jacob, Margaret C. The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720. p100-101.
• Note 18: Jacob, Margaret C. The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720. p61.
• Note 19: Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p2.
• Note 20: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," in Oeuvres de Lagrange, I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. (cited by Fred L. Wilson)
• Note 21: Keynes, John Maynard Essays in Biography, "Newton, The Man" p363-364 The Collected Writtings of John Maynard Keynes, Volume X, MacMillan St. Martin's Press, The Royal Economic Society: 1972.
• Note 22: Opticks, quoted in Dobbs, B. J. T. "Netwon's Alchemy and his Theory of Matter." Isis, 73(1982)523.

Richard S. Westfall (April 22, 1924—August 21, 1996) was an American professor, biographer and science historian. ...

See also

• History of calculus
• Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy
• "Standing on the shoulders of giants"
• Newton-Cotes formulas
• Gauss-Newton algorithm
• Newton fractal
• Newton polygon

// Overview Though the origins of integral calculus are generally regarded as going no farther back than to the ancient Greeks, there is evidence that the ancient Egyptians may have harbored such knowledge amongst themselves as well (see Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri). ... Isaac Newton began working on a form of the calculus in 1666. ... The metaphor of dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants can be traced back to Lucan,[cannot be traced to this source. ... In numerical analysis, the Newton-Cotes formulas, also called the Newton-Cotes rules, are a group of formulas for numerical integration (also called quadrature). ... In mathematics, the Gauss-Newton algorithm is used to solve nonlinear least squares problems. ... The Newton fractal is a boundary set in the complex plane which is characterized by Newtons method applied to a fixed polynomial p(Z)∈ℂ[Z]. It divides the complex plane into regions Gk, each of which is associated with a root ζk of the polynomial, . In this way the... In mathematics, the Newton polygon is a tool for understanding the behaviour of polynomials over local fields. ...

Resources

References

• Bell, E.T. (1937). Men of Mathematics. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0671464000. Excerpt
• Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0029051908. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics
• "interview with James Gleick: "Isaac Newton" (Pantheon)." WAMU's The Diane Rehm Show Friday, June 13, 2003 (RealAudio stream). URL accessed on March 8, 2005.
• "Sir Isaac Newton." School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. URL accessed on March 8, 2005.
• "The Newton Project." Imperial College London. URL accessed on March 8, 2005.
• Westfall, Richard S. (1980, 1998). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521274354.
• Craig, John (1963). “Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters”, Notes and Records of the Royal Society (18). London: The Royal Society.
• "The Invisible Science." Magical Egypt. Chance Gardner and John Anthony West. 2005.

Eric Temple Bell (1883 - 1960) was a mathematician born in Scotland who lived in the USA from 1903 until his death. ... Patristics is the study of early Christian writers, known as the Church Fathers. ... March 8 is the 67th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (68th in Leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... March 8 is the 67th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (68th in Leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... March 8 is the 67th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (68th in Leap years). ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Richard S. Westfall (April 22, 1924—August 21, 1996) was an American professor, biographer and science historian. ...

Further reading

• Berlinski, David, Newton's Gift:How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of our World, ISBN 0684843927 (hardback), also in paperback, Simon & Schuster, 2000
• Christianson, Gale E. In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times. Collier MacMillan, 1984. 608 pages
• Dampier, William C. & M. Dampier. Readings in the Literature of Science. Harper & Row, New York, 1959.
• Gleick, James. Isaac Newton. Knopf, 2003. hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0375422331
• Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-5 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein.
• Hart, Michael J. The 100. Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
• Keynes, John Maynard. Essays in Biography. W W Norton & Co, 1963, paperback, ISBN 039300189X. Keynes had taken a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
• Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8
• Newton, Isaac (1642-1727). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California 1999 Warning: common mistranslations exposed!
• Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147-9; "Discoveries" pp. 150-4. Harper & Bros., New York, 1946.
• Simmons, J. The giant book of scientists -- The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The Book Company, (1996)

David Berlinski (born 1942) is a mathematician who is the author of A Tour of the Calculus, The Advent of the Algorithm (ISBN 0156013916), On Systems Analysis, Newton’s Gift, The Secrets of the Vaulted Sky, and, most recently, Infinite Ascent: A Short History of Mathematics. ... Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, (born 8 January 1942) is considered one of the worlds leading theoretical physicists. ... Nicolaus Copernicus (in Latin; Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, German Nikolaus Kopernikus - February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was a Polish astronomer, mathematician and economist who developed a heliocentric (Sun-centered) theory of the solar system in a form detailed enough to make it scientifically useful. ... Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630), a key figure in the scientific revolution, was a German mathematician, astrologer, astronomer, and an early writer of science fiction stories. ... Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans. ... Albert Einstein, photographed by Yousuf Karsh in 1948. ... Michael H. Hart is an astrophysicist who has worked for NASA and been a professor of astronomy and physics at a college in Maryland, USA. He holds degrees in physics, astronomy, and law and is the author of the best selling book, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential... In 1978, Michael H. Hart published a book called The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. ... John Maynard Keynes (right) and Harry Dexter White at the Bretton Woods Conference John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes, CB (pronounced kānz / kAnze) (June 5, 1883 – April 21, 1946) was a British economist whose ideas had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on... I. Bernard Cohen (1914-2003) was the Victor S. Thomas Professor of the history of science at Harvard University and the author of many books on the history of science and, in particular, Isaac Newton. ...

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Isaac Newton

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Isaac Newton

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Isaac Newton

• PDF copies of Newton's Principia in the 1687, 1713, and 1726 editions available for download
• Newton's Principia free to read and searchOnline First American Edition, 1846, including Motte's 1729 Translation and Chittenden's Biography.
• Portraits of Issac Newton
• Works by Isaac Newton at Project Gutenberg
• Sir Isaac Newton Scientist and Mathematician by Lucidcafé
• Isaac Newton Directory
• Newton Research Project
• Rebuttal of Newton as an astrologer
• Newton Reconsidered, an interview with Newton scholar Stephen D. Snobelen
• March 5-June 12, 2005 Isaac Newton's personal copy of Principia on display at Huntington Library
• Newton's Reports as Master of the Royal Mint
• Newton's Dark Secrets NOVA television programme.
• John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson. Isaac Newton at the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Newton's views on space, time, and motion
• Sir Isaac Newton an article that traces his life and achievements.
• Newton's Castle Educational material about Newton
• The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Research about Isaac Newton's Alchemical writings
• The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences
  • Biography at Isaac Newton Institute

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