Funerary stele: the slave represented as a shorter person, beside the mistress, Munich Glyptothek

Slavery was an essential component of the development of Ancient Greece throughout its history. Most ancient writers considered slavery not only necessary but natural; neither the Stoics nor the Early Christians questioned the practice. However, some isolated debate began to appear, notably in Socratic dialogues, as early as the 4th century BC. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 323 × 598 pixel Image in higher resolution (1500 × 2778 pixel, file size: 545 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 323 × 598 pixel Image in higher resolution (1500 × 2778 pixel, file size: 545 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient... The Glyptothek is a museum in Munich, Germany, which was commissioned by the Bavarian King Ludwig I to house his collection of Greek and Roman sculptures (hence Glypto-, from the Greek root glyphein, to carve). ... Slave redirects here. ... The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... A restored Stoa in Athens. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      The... This page is about the Classical Greek philosopher. ... The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ...

In conformity with modern historiographical practice, this article will discuss only chattel slavery, as opposed to dependent groups such as the Penestae of Thessaly, the Spartan Helots or even the Klarotes of Crete, who were more like medieval serfs. The chattel slave is an individual deprived of liberty and forced to submit to an owner who may buy, sell, or lease him or her as one might any chattel good. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into slavery. ... The Penestae (in Greek oι Πενεσται, hoi penestai) were a a class of unfree laborers tied to the land once inhabiting Thessaly, whose status is comparable to that of the Spartan Helots. ... Map showing Thessaly periphery in Greece Thessaly (Θεσσαλια; modern Greek Thessalía; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. ... For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ... For other uses, see Crete (disambiguation). ... Serf redirects here. ... Personal property is a type of property. ...

The study of slavery in Ancient Greece poses a number of significant methodological problems. Documentation is disjointed and very fragmented, focusing on the city of Athens. No treatise is specifically devoted to the subject. Judicial pleadings of the 4th century BC were interested in slavery only as a source of revenue. Comedy and tragedy represented stereotypes. Iconography made no substantial differentiation between slave and craftsman. Even the terminology is often vague. This article is about the capital of Greece. ... The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... Tragedy is one of the oldest forms of drama. ... An artisan, also called a craftsman,[1] is a skilled manual worker who uses tools and machinery in a particular craft. ...

Terminology

The Ancient Greeks had many words to describe slaves, though many need to be placed in proper context to avoid ambiguity. In Homer, Hesiod and Theognis of Megara, the slave was called δμώς / dmôs.^[1] The term has a general meaning but refers particularly to war prisoners taken as booty,^[2] in other words, property. During the classical period, the Greeks frequently used ἀνδράποδον / andrápodon,^[3] literally, "one with the feet of a man", as opposed to τετράποδον / tetrapodon, "quadruped", or livestock.^[4] The most common word is undoubtedly δοῦλος / doûlos,^[5] an earlier form of which appears in Mycenaean inscriptions as do-e-ro,^[6] used in opposition to "free man" (ἐλεύθερος / eleútheros). The verb δουλεὐω can be used metaphorically for other forms of dominion, as of one city over another or parents over their children.^[7] Finally, the term οἰκέτης / oikétês was used, meaning literally "one who lives in the house", referring to household servants.^[8] For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). ... Roman bronze bust, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, now identified by some as possibly Hesiod Hesiod (Hesiodos, ) was an early Greek poet and rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BC. Hesiod and Homer, with whom Hesiod is often paired, have been considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived... Theognis of Megara (fl. ... Mycenaean Greece, the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece, is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and much other Greek mythology. ... It has been suggested that Verbal agreement be merged into this article or section. ...

Other terms used were less precise and required context:

• θεράπων / therápôn — At the time of Homer, the word meant "squire" (Patroclus was referred to as the therapôn of Achilles^[9] and Meriones that of Idomeneus^[10]); during the classical age, it meant "servant".^[11]
• ἀκόλουθος / akólouthos — literally, "the follower" or "the one who accompanies". Also, the diminutive ἀκολουθίσκος, used for page boys.^[12]
• παῖς / pais — literally "child", used in the same way as "houseboy",^[13] also used in a derogatory way to call adult slaves.^[14]
• σῶμα / sôma — literally "body", used in the context of emancipation.^[15]

For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). ... A cup depicting Achilles bandaging Patroklos arm, by the Sosias Painter. ... For other uses, see Achilles (disambiguation). ... Meriones was a son of Molus and Melphis. ... In Greek mythology, Idomeneus was a Cretan warrior, grandson of Minos. ... A diminutive is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment. ... A page is a young male servant. ... Houseboy, a term not in widespread use today due to a pejorative connotation, is a male servant who performs domestic or personal chores, as in: Houseboy, an American slang term that originated in WWII describing a native boy who helped a soldier preform basic responsibilites like cleaning, laundry, ironing, shoe...

Origins of slavery

Women as plunder of war: Ajax the Lesser taking Cassandra, tondo of a red-figure kylix by the Kodros Painter, ca. 440-430 BC, Louvre

The presence of slaves is confirmed in the Mycenaean civilization. In the tablets from Pylos 140 do-e-ro can be identified with certainty. Two legal categories can be distinguished: "common" slaves and "slaves of the god" (te-o-jo do-e-ro / θεοιο), the god in this case probably being Poseidon. Slaves of the god are always mentioned by name and own their own land; their legal status is close to that of freemen. The nature and origin of their bond to the divinity is unclear.^[16] As for common slaves, their names show that some of them came from Kythera, Chios, Lemnos, or even Halicarnassus and were probably enslaved as a result of piracy. The tablets indicate that unions between slaves and non-slaves were not uncommon and that slaves could be independent artisans and could retain plots of land. In fact, it appears that the major division in Mycenaean civilization was not between slave and free, but between those attached to the palace and those not.^[17] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 610 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,824 × 1,794 pixels, file size: 2. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 610 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,824 × 1,794 pixels, file size: 2. ... Ajax (Greek: Αἴας), a Greek hero, son of Oïleus the king of Locris, called the lesser or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from Ajax, son of Telamon. ... For other uses, see Cassandra (disambiguation). ... Red-figure pottery is a style of Greek pottery in which the figure outlines, details and the background are painted black, while the figure itself is not painted. ... Kylix may mean: Kylix (drinking cup), a type of drinking cup used in ancient Greece Kylix programming tool This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article is about the museum. ... Mycenaean Greece, the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece, is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and much other Greek mythology. ... This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town. ... Neptune reigns in the city of Bristol. ... Kythira (Îœodern Hellenic: Κύθηρα), also known as Cerigo (Τσιρίγο), also spelt: Kithira, Kythera, Cythera, Cerigo or Tsirigo, is an hellenic island, historically part of the Ionian Islands. ... Chios (Greek: , alternative transliterations Khios and Hios), is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea seven kilometres (five miles) off the Turkish coast. ... Lemnos (mod. ... Halicarnassus (Ancient Greek: ; Turkish: , modern Bodrum) was an ancient Greek city on the southwest coast of Caria, Anatolia (Asia Minor), on a picturesque, advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf (Gulf of Kos, Gulf of Gökova). ... This article is about maritime piracy. ...

There is no continuity between the Mycenaean era and the time of Homer, where social structures reflected those of the Greek dark ages. The terminology differs: the slave is no longer do-e-ro (doulos) but dmôs.^[18] In the Iliad, slaves are mainly women taken as booty of war,^[19] while men were either ransomed^[20] or killed on the battlefield. In the Odyssey, the slaves also seem to be mostly women.^[21] These slaves were servants^[22] sometimes concubines.^[23] There were some male slaves, especially in the Odyssey, a prime example being the swineherd Eumaeus. The slave was distinctive in being a member of the core part of the oikos ("family unit", "household"): Laertes eats and drinks with his servants^[24]; in the winter, he sleeps in their company.^[25] The term dmôs is not considered pejorative, and Eumaeus, the "divine" swineherd,^[26] benefits from the same Homeric epithet as the Greek heroes. In spite of this, slavery remained a disgrace. Eumaeus himself declares that “Zeus, of the far-borne voice, takes away the half of a man's virtue, when the day of slavery comes upon him.”^[27] For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). ... The Greek Dark Ages (ca. ... title page of the Rihel edition of ca. ... In Greek mythology, Laërtes (Greek: Λαέρτης) was the son of Arcesius and Chalcomedusa. ... Epithets in Homer. ...

It is difficult to determine when slave trading began in the archaic period. In Works and Days (8th century BC), Hesiod owns numerous dmôes,^[28] although their status is unclear. The presence of douloi is confirmed by lyric poets such as Archilochus or Theognis of Megara.^[29] According to epigraphic evidence, the homicide law of Draco (c. 620 BC) mentioned slaves.^[30] According to Plutarch,^[31] Solon (c. 594-593 BC) forbade slaves from practising gymnastics and pederasty. By the end of the period, references become more common. Slavery becomes prevalent at the very moment when Solon establishes the basis for Athenian democracy. Classical scholar Moses Finley likewise remarks that Chios, which, according to Theopompus,^[32] was the first city to organize a slave trade, also enjoyed an early democratic process (in the 6th century BC). He concludes that “one aspect of Greek history, in short, is the advance hand in hand, of freedom and slavery.”^[33] (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... Roman bronze bust, the so-called Pseudo-Seneca, now identified by some as possibly Hesiod Hesiod (Hesiodos, ) was an early Greek poet and rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BC. Hesiod and Homer, with whom Hesiod is often paired, have been considered the earliest Greek poets whose work has survived... Archilochus (Greek: ) (ca. ... Theognis of Megara (fl. ... Draco (IPA pronunciation: ; from Greek , IPA ) was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th century BC. // Very little is known of his life. ... For other uses, see Solon (disambiguation). ... Moses Finley Moses Finley (d. ... Theopompus, a Greek historian and rhetorician, was born at Chios about 380 BC. In early youth he seems to have spent some time at Athens, along with his father, who had been exiled on account of his Laconian sympathies. ...

Economic role

See also: Economy of ancient Greece

Agriculture, a common use for slaves, black-figure neck-amphora by the Antimenes Painter, British Museum

Strictly speaking, there was no such thing as a servile act. All activities were open to slaves with the exception of politics, the only activity over which citizens had a monopoly.^[34] Moreover, for the Greeks, politics was the only activity worthy of a citizen, the rest having been relegated wherever possible to non-citizens.^[35] It was status that was of importance, not activity. The economy of ancient Greece was characterized by the extreme importance of agriculture, all the more so because of the relative poverty of Greeces soil. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 389 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (579 × 893 pixel, file size: 426 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 389 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (579 × 893 pixel, file size: 426 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient... A black-figure krater (mixing bowl), 6th century BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens The black-figure pottery technique is a style of ancient Greek pottery painting in which the decoration appears as black silhouettes on a red background. ... The British Museum in London, England is a museum of human history and culture. ...

The principal use of slaves was in agriculture, the foundation of the Greek economy. Some small landowners might own one slave, or even two.^[36] An abundant literature of manuals for landowners (such as the Economy of Xenophon or that of Pseudo-Aristotle) confirms the presence of dozens of slaves on the larger estates; they could be common labourers or foremen. The extent to which slaves were used as a labour force in farming is still disputed.^[37] It is, however, certain on the one hand that rural slavery was very common in Athens, and, on the other, that Ancient Greece did not know the immense slave populations found on the Roman latifundia.^[38] Conversations of Socrates, Penguin Classics edition of Xenophons Socratic dialogues including the Oeconomicus, edited by Robin Waterfield The Oeconomicus by Xenophon is a Socratic dialogue principally about household management and agriculture. ... Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , ca. ... Pseudo-Aristotle is a general cognomen for authors of philosophical or medical treatises who attributed their work to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, or whose work was later attributed to him by others. ... Latifundia are pieces of landed property covering tremendous areas. ...

In the mines and quarries, slave labour was by far most prevalent. Here were found large slave populations, often leased out by rich private citizens. The strategos Nicias leased a thousand slaves to the silver mines of Laurium in Attica; Hipponicos, 600; and Philomidès, 300. Xenophon^[39] indicates that they received one obolus per slave per day, amounting to 60 drachmas per year. This was one of the most prized investments for Athenians. The number of slaves working in the Laurium mines or in the mills processing ore can be estimated at 30,000.^[40] Xenophon even suggested that the city buy a large number of slaves, up to three state slaves per citizen, so that their leasing would assure the upkeep of all the citizens.^[39] This article is about mineral extractions. ... For other uses, see Quarry (disambiguation). ... The term strategos (plural strategoi; Greek στρατηγός) is used in Greek to mean general. In the hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor. ... Nicias expeditions, before the Sicilian campaign. ... Laurium or Laurion (Λαύριον, Thoricum before early 1000s BC, Ergastiri throughout the medieval times and the mid to late 1000s, Ergastiri is Greek for Workplace) is a town in southeastern part of Attica, Greece and is one of the southernmost and the seat of... Attica (in Greek: Αττική, Attike; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a periphery (subdivision) in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece. ... The obolus (or obol) is a Greek silver coin worth a sixth of a drachma. ... Drachma, pl. ...

Slaves were also used as craftsmen and tradespersons. As in agriculture, they were used for labour which was beyond the capability of the family. However, the slave population was greatest in the workshops. The shield factory of Lysias employed 120 slaves,^[41] and the father of Demosthenes owned 32 cutlers and 20 bedmakers.^[42] It has been suggested that Journeyman be merged into this article or section. ... Lysias (d. ... Demosthenes (384–322 BC, Greek: Δημοσθένης, Dēmosthénēs) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. ...

Slaves were also employed in the home. The domestic's main role was to stand in for his master at his trade and to accompany him on trips. In time of war he was batman to the hoplite; it has been argued that their actual role was far greater.^[43] The female slave carried out domestic tasks, in particular bread baking and textile making. Only the poorest citizens did not possess a domestic slave.^[44] The hoplite was a heavy infantryman that was the central focus of warfare in Ancient Greece. ...

Demographics

Population

Ethiopian slave attempts to break a horse, date unknown, National Archaeological Museum of Athens

It is difficult to estimate the number of slaves in ancient Greece, given the lack of a precise census and variations in definitions during that era. It is certain that Athens had the largest slave population with as many as 80,000 in the 5th and 6th centuries BC,^[40] on average three or four slaves per household. In the 5th century BC, Thucydides remarked upon the desertion of 20,000 slaves during the war of Decelea, mostly tradesmen. The lowest estimate, of 20,000 slaves, during the time of Demosthenes,^[45] corresponds to one slave per family. Between 317 BC and 307 BC, the tyrant Demetrius Phalereus ordered^[46] a general census of Attica which arrived at the following figures: 21,000 citizens, 10,000 Metics and 400,000 slaves. The orator Hypereides, in his Against Areistogiton, recalls that the effort to enlist 150,000 male slaves of military age led to the defeat of the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), which corresponds to the figures of Ctesicles.^[47] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1200x1208, 367 KB) Stèle funéraire attique, en marbre pentélique, trouvée près la station de chemin de fer de Larisis. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1200x1208, 367 KB) Stèle funéraire attique, en marbre pentélique, trouvée près la station de chemin de fer de Larisis. ... Façade of the National Archaeological museum of Athens. ... The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... Bust of Thucydides residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. ... Decelea, modern Dekeleia or Dekelia, Deceleia or Decelia, previous name Tatoi was a decisive source of supplies for Athens. ... Demosthenes (384–322 BC, Greek: Δημοσθένης, Dēmosthénēs) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. ... Demetrius Phalereus ( - died approximately 280 BC) was an Athenian orator and one of the first Peripatetics. ... In ancient Greece, the term metic meant resident alien, a person who did not have citizen rights in their Greek city-state (polis) of residence. ... Hypereides (c. ... Combatants Macedon Athens, Thebes Commanders Philip II of Macedon, Alexander the Great Chares of Athens, Lysicles of Athens, Theagenes of Boeotia Strength 32,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry 35,000 Casualties Unknown 1,000 Athenians killed, 254 Boeotians killed, 2,000 captured The Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), fought near...

According to the literature, it appears that the majority of Athenians owned at least one slave. Aristophanes, in Plutus, portrays poor peasants who have several slaves; Aristotle defines a house as containing freemen and slaves.^[48] Conversely, not owning even one slave was a clear sign of poverty. In the celebrated discourse of Lysias For the Invalid, a cripple pleading for a pension explains "my income is very small and now I'm required to do these things myself and do not even have the means to purchase a slave who can do these things for me."^[49] However, the huge slave populations of the Romans were unknown in Ancient Greece. When Athenaeus^[50] cites the case of Mnason, friend of Aristotle and owner of a thousand slaves, this appears to be exceptional. Plato, owner of five slaves at the time of his death, describes the very rich as owning 50 slaves.^[51] This article is about the 5-4th century BC dramatist. ... In Greek mythology, Plutus (wealth) was a son of Demeter and Iasion and was the personification of wealth. ... Lysias (d. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

In terms of density, Thucydides estimates that the isle of Chios had proportionally the largest number of slaves.^[52] Chios (Greek: , alternative transliterations Khios and Hios), is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea seven kilometres (five miles) off the Turkish coast. ...

Sources of supply

There were four primary sources of slaves: war, piracy (at sea), banditry (on land), and international trade. This article is about maritime piracy. ...

War

By the rules of war of the period, the victor possessed absolute rights over the vanquished, whether they were soldiers or not.^[53] Enslavement, while not systematic, was common practice. Thucydides recalls that 7,000 inhabitants of Hyccara in Sicily were taken prisoner by Nicias and sold for 120 talents in the neighbouring village of Catania.^[54] Likewise in 348 BC the population of Olynthus was reduced to slavery, as was that of Thebes in 335 BC by Alexander the Great and that of Mantineia by the Achaean League.^[55] Bust of Thucydides residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. ... Sicily ( in Italian and Sicilian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,708 km² (9,926 sq. ... Nicias expeditions, before the Sicilian campaign. ... A talent is an ancient unit of mass. ... The Roman Odeon. ... Olynthus, an ancient city of Chalcidice, situated in a fertile plain at the head of the Gulf of Torone, near the neck of the peninsula of Pallene, at some little distance from the sea, and about 60 stadia (7 or 8 miles) from Potidaea. ... Thebes (Demotic Greek: Θήβα — Thíva; Katharevousa: — Thêbai or Thívai) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Mantinea – Greek: Mαντινεία Mantineia, modern romanizations: Mantinia, Mandineia or Mandinia; and for a time Antigonia (Greek: Αντιγόνεια) also transliterated as Antigonea and Antigoneia – is a city in Arcadia in the central Peloponnese that was the site of two significant battles in Classical Greek history. ... The Achaean League was a confederation of Greek city states in Achaea, a territory on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. ...

The existence of Greek slaves was a constant source of discomfort for free Greeks. The enslavement of cities was also a controversial practice. Some generals refused, such as the Spartans Agesilaus II^[56] and Callicratidas.^[57] Some cities passed accords to forbid the practice: in the middle of the 3rd century BC, Miletus agreed not to reduce any free Knossian to slavery, and vice versa.^[55] Conversely, the emancipation by ransom of a city which had been entirely reduced to slavery carried great prestige: Cassander, in 316 BC, restored Thebes.^[58] Before him, Philip II of Macedon enslaved and then emancipated Stageira.^[59] For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... Agesilaus II, or Agesilaos II (Greek Ἀγησιλάος), king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family, was the son of Archidamus II and Eupolia, and younger step-brother of Agis II, whom he succeeded about 401 BC. Agis had, indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as illegitimate, current rumour representing... Callicratidas was a Spartan naval commander in the Peloponnesian War. ... The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ... The lower half of the benches and the remnants of the scene building of the theater of Miletus (August 2005) Miletus (Carian: Anactoria Hittite: Milawata or Millawanda, Greek: Μίλητος transliterated Miletos, Turkish: Milet) was an ancient city on the western coast of Anatolia (in what is now Aydin Province, Turkey), near... A portion of Arthur Evans reconstruction of the Minoan palace at Knossos. ...  Kingdom of Cassander Other diadochi  Kingdom of Seleucus  Kingdom of Lysimachus  Kingdom of Ptolemy  Epirus Other  Carthage  Rome  Greek colonies Cassander (in Greek, Κάσσανδρος — Kassandros, ca. ... Philip II of Macedon: victory medal (niketerion) struck in Tarsus, 2nd c. ... Stageira (Greek: Στάγειρα) was an ancient Greek city on the Chalcidice peninsula and is chiefly known for being the birthplace of Aristotle. ...

Piracy and banditry

War provided a significant and consistent supply of slaves. The same went for piracy and banditry,^[60] though the significance of this source varied according to era and region.^[61] Pirates and brigands would demand ransom whenever the status of their catch warranted it. Whenever ransom was not paid, or was not warranted, captives would be sold to a trafficker^[62]. Thus, nobody was immune from falling into servitude. In certain areas, piracy was practically a national specialty, described by Thucydides as "the old-fashioned" way of life.^[63] Such was the case in Acarnania, Crete, and Aetolia. Outside of Greece, this was also the case with Illyrians, Phoenicians, and Etruscans. During the Hellenistic period, Cilicians and the mountain peoples from the coasts of Anatolia could also be added to the list. Strabo explains the popularity of the practice amongst the Cilicians by its profitability; Delos, not far away, allowed for "moving a myriad of slaves daily".^[64] The growing influence of the Roman Empire, a large consumer of slaves, led to development of the market and an aggravation of piracy.^[65] In the 1st century BC, however, the Romans largely eradicated piracy to protect the Mediterranean trade routes.^[66] This article is about maritime piracy. ... Acarnania was a region of ancient central western Greece that lay along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. ... For other uses, see Crete (disambiguation). ... The ancient Region of Aetolia, Greece Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania. ... Location of Illyria Illyria (Albanian Iliria Land of the Free; Ancient Greek ; Latin Illyria [1] (see also Illyricum) was in Classical antiquity a region in the western part of todays Balkan Peninsula, founded by the tribes and clans of Illyrians, an ancient people who spoke the Illyrian languages. ... Phoenicia (or Phenicia ,[1] from Biblical Phenice [1]) was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coast of modern day Lebanon and Syria. ... Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ... The Hellenistic period of Greek history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which... The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199-1375. ... This article is about two nested areas of Turkey, a plateau region within a peninsula. ... The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. ... The island of Delos, Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann, 1847 The island of Delos (Greek: Δήλος, Dhilos), isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the Cyclades, near Mykonos, had a position as a holy sanctuary for a millennium before Olympian Greek mythology made it the birthplace of... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ...

International trade

There was in addition a slave trade with neighbouring barbarians. The fragmentary list of slaves confiscated from the property of the mutilators of the Hermai mentions 32 slaves whose nationalities have been ascertained: 13 came from Thrace, 7 from Caria, and the others came from Cappadocia, Caria, Scythia, Phrygia, Lydia, Syria, Ilyria, Macedon and Peloponnese.^[67] The mechanism was similar to that later seen in the African slave trade: local professionals sold their fellow creatures to Greek slave merchants. The principal centres of the slave trade appear to have been Ephesus, Byzantium, and even faraway Tanais at the mouth of the Don. Some barbarian slaves were victims of war or localised piracy, but others were sold by their parents.^[68] There is a lack of direct evidence of slave traffic, but corroborating evidence exists. Firstly, certain nationalities are consistently and significantly represented in the slave population, such as the corps of Scythian archers employed by Athens as a police force—originally 300, but eventually nearly a thousand.^[69] Secondly, the names given to slaves in the comedies often had a geographical link; thus Thratta, used by Aristophanes in The Wasps, The Acharnians, and Peace, simply signified Thracian woman.^[70] Finally, the nationality of a slave was a significant criterion for major purchasers; the ancient advice was not to concentrate too many slaves of the same origin in the same place, in order to limit the risk of revolt.^[71] It is also probable that, as with the Romans, certain nationalities were considered more productive as slaves than others. Herma of Demosthenes on the market place of Athens, work by Polyeuktos, ca. ... Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak  Thrace (Bulgarian: , Greek: , Attic Greek: ThrāíkÄ“ or ThrēíkÄ“, Latin: , Turkish: ) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. ... Location of Caria Photo of a 15th century map showing Caria. ... For other uses, see Cappadocia (disambiguation). ... Location of Caria Photo of a 15th century map showing Caria. ... Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them Scytho-Sarmatian). ... In antiquity, Phrygia (Greek: ) was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. ... Lydia (Greek ) is a historic region of western Anatolia, congruent with Turkeys modern provinces of Ä°zmir and Manisa. ... This article is about the ancient region in the south of Europe. ... Ancient Macedons regions and towns Macedon or Macedonia (Greek ) was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east. ... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... It has been suggested that Impact of Slave Trade on Africa be merged into this article or section. ... For the town in the southern United States, see Ephesus, Georgia. ... Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city, which, according to legend, was founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas (Βύζας or Βύζαντας in Greek). ... Sarmatian cataphract from Tanais. ... The Don (Дон) is one of the major rivers of Russia. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... This article is about the 5-4th century BC dramatist. ... The Wasps is a comedy by Aristophanes. ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Acharnians in Greek The Acharnians (Ancient Greek: / AkharneÄ©s) is a comedic play by the ancient Greek satirist Aristophanes. ... Peace is a comedy written and produced by the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes. ...

The price of slaves varied in accordance with their ability. Xenophon valued a Laurion miner at 180 drachmas;^[39] in comparison a workman at major works was paid one drachma per day. Demosthenes' father's cutlers were valued at 500 to 600 drachmas each.^[72] Price was also a function of the quantity of slaves available; in the 4th century BC they were abundant and it was thus a buyer's market. A tax on sale revenues was levied by the market cities. A large slave market was organized, for instance, during the festivities at the temple of Apollo at Actium. The Acarnanian League, who was in charge of the logistics, received half of the tax proceeds, the other half going to the city of Anactorion, of which Actium was a part.^[73] Buyers enjoyed a guarantee against latent defects; the transaction could be invalidated if the bought slave turned out to be crippled and the buyer had not been warned about it.^[74] Drachma, pl. ... Drachma, pl. ... Drachma, pl. ... The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ... For other uses, see Apollo (disambiguation). ... Actium (mod. ... In the law of the sale of property (both real estate and chattels) a latent defect is a fault in the property that could not have been discovered by a reasonably thorough inspection before the sale. ...

Natural growth

Funerary stele for two young children and their pedagogue, killed in an earthquake, Nicomedia, 1st century BC, Louvre

Curiously, it appears that the Greeks did not "breed" their slaves, at least during the Classical Era, though the proportion of houseborn slaves appears to have been rather large in Ptolemaic Egypt and in manumission inscriptions at Delphi.^[75] Sometimes the cause of this was natural; mines, for instance, were exclusively a male domain. On the other hand, there were many female domestic slaves. The example of black people in the American South on the other hand demonstrates that slave populations can multiply.^[76] This incongruity remains relatively unexplained. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1745x1470, 1959 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient Greece Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1745x1470, 1959 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient Greece Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... Nicomedia (modern Ä°zmit, also known as Iznik) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus (which opens on the Propontis) in 264 BC. The city has ever since been one of the chief towns in this part of Asia Minor. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... This article is about the museum. ... The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state from southern Syria... Historic Southern United States. ...

Xenophon advised that male and female slaves should be lodged separately, that "…nor children born and bred by our domestics without our knowledge and consent—no unimportant matter, since, if the act of rearing children tends to make good servants still more loyally disposed, cohabiting but sharpens ingenuity for mischief in the bad."^[77] More simply, the explanation is perhaps economic; even a skilled slave was somewhat cheap,^[78] so it may have been cheaper to purchase a slave than to raise one.^[79] Additionally, childbirth placed the slave-mother's life at risk, and the baby was not guaranteed to survive to adulthood.^[80]

Houseborn slaves (oikogeneis) often constituted a privileged class. They were, for example, entrusted to take the children to school; they were "pedagogues" in the first sense of the term.^[81] Some of them were the offspring of the master of the house, but in most cities, notably Athens, a child inherited the status of its mother.^[80] Pedagogy (IPA: ) , the art or science of being a teacher, generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction[1]. The word comes from the Ancient Greek (paidagōgeō; from (child) and (lead)): literally, to lead the child”. In Ancient Greece, was (usually) a slave who supervised the...

Status of slaves

The Greeks had not one but many degrees of enslavement. More precisely, there was a multitude of categories, ranging from free citizen to chattel slave, and including serfs (Penestae or Helots), disenfranchised citizens, freedmen, bastards, and Metics.^[82] The common ground was, of course, the deprivation of civic rights. The Penestae (in Greek oι Πενεσται, hoi penestai) were a a class of unfree laborers tied to the land once inhabiting Thessaly, whose status is comparable to that of the Spartan Helots. ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ... In ancient Greece, the term metic meant resident alien, a person who did not have citizen rights in their Greek city-state (polis) of residence. ...

Moses Finley proposed a set of criteria for different degrees of enslavement:^[83] Moses Finley Moses Finley (d. ...

• right to own property
• authority over the work of another
• power of punishment over another
• legal rights and duties (liability to arrest and/or arbitrary punishment, or to litigate)
• familial rights and privileges (marriage, inheritance, etc.)
• possibility of social mobility (manumission or emancipation, access to citizen rights)
• religious rights and obligations
• military rights and obligations (military service as servant, heavy or light soldier, or sailor)

Athenian slaves

Funerary loutrophoros; on the right a young slave carries his master's shield and helm, 380–370 BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Athenian slaves were the property of their master (or of the state), who could dispose of them as he saw fit. He could give, sell, rent, or bequeath them. A slave could have a spouse and children, but the slave family was not recognized by the state, and the master could scatter the family members at any time.^[84] Slaves had few or no judicial rights and were represented by their master in all judicial proceedings.^[85] A misdemeanour that would result in a fine for the free man would result in a flogging for the slave; the ratio seems to have been one lash for one drachma.^[81] With several minor exceptions, the testimony of a slave was not admissible except under torture. ^[86] Slaves were tortured in trials because they often remained trusty to their master. A famous example of trusty slave was Themistocles's Persian slave Sicinnus (the counterpart of Ephialtes of Trachis), who, despite his Persian origin, betrayed Xerxes and helped Athenians in the Battle of Salamis. Despite the inevitable torture in trials, however, the Athenian slave was protected in an indirect way: if he was mistreated, the master could initiate litigation for damages and interest (δίκη βλάβης / dikê blabês).^[81] Conversely, a master who excessively mistreated a slave could be prosecuted by any citizen (γραφὴ ὕβρεως / graphê hybreôs); this was not enacted for the sake of the slave, but to avoid violent excess (ὕβρις / hubris).^[87] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 380 KB) Loutrophoros funéraire, marbre pentélique. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1600x1200, 380 KB) Loutrophoros funéraire, marbre pentélique. ... A loutrophoros is a distinctive type of Greek pottery characterized by its elongated neck. ... Façade of the National Archaeological museum of Athens. ... Themistocles (Greek: ; c. ... For other uses, see Ephialtes (disambiguation). ... Xerxes may refer to these Persian kings: Xerxes I, reigned 485–465 BC, also known as Xerxes the Great. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Hubris or hybris (Greek ), according to its modern usage, is exaggerated self pride or self-confidence (overbearing pride), often resulting in fatal retribution. ...

As for the murder of a slave, Isocrates claims that “not even the most worthless slave can be put to death without trial”;^[88] the master's power over his slave was not absolute, as it was under Roman law.^[89] Draco's law apparently punished with death the murder of a slave; the underlying principle was: “was the crime such that, if it became more widespread, it would do serious harm to society?”^[90] The suit that could be brought against a slave's killer was not a suit for damages, as would be the case for the killing of cattle, but a δίκη φονική (dikê phonikê), demanding punishment for the religious pollution brought by the shedding of blood.^[91] In the 4th century BC, the suspect was judged by the Palladion, a court which had jurisdiction over unintentional homicide;^[92] the imposed penalty seems to have been more than a fine but less than death—maybe exile, as was the case in the murder of a Metic.^[91] Isocrates (436–338 BC), Greek rhetorician. ... Draco (IPA pronunciation: ; from Greek , IPA ) was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th century BC. // Very little is known of his life. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Palladium (mythology). ... It has been suggested that Voluntary Manslaughter be merged into this article or section. ...

However, slaves did belong to their master's household. A newly bought slave was welcomed with nuts and fruits, just like a newly wed wife.^[84] Slaves took part in most of the civic and family cults; they were expressly invited to join the banquet of the Choes, second day of the Anthesteria,^[93] and were allowed initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries.^[84] A slave could claim asylum in a temple or at an altar, just like a free man. The slaves shared the gods of their masters and could keep their own religious customs if any.^[93] Anthesteria, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour of Dionysus, held annually for three days (11th-13th) in the month of Anthesterion (February-March). ... The Eleusinian Mysteries (Greek: Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια) were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at Eleusis in ancient Greece. ...

Slaves could not own property, but their masters often let them save up to purchase their freedom,^[94] and records survive of slaves operating businesses by themselves, making only a fixed tax-payment to their masters. Athens also had a law forbidding the striking of slaves—if a person struck what appeared to be a slave in Athens, that person might find himself hitting a fellow-citizen, because many citizens dressed no better. It astonished other Greeks that Athenians tolerated back-chat from slaves.^[95] Athenian slaves fought together with Athenian freemen at the battle of Marathon, and the monuments memorialize them.^[96] It was formally decreed before the battle of Salamis that the citizens should "save themselves, their women, children, and slaves".^[97] Combatants Athens, Plataea Persia Commanders Miltiades, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 10,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 - 100,000 a Casualties 192 Athenians killed, 11 Plataeans killed (Herodotus) 6,400 killed, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ...

Slaves in Gortyn

A fragment of the Gortyn code in Gortyn, Crete

In Gortyn, in Crete, according to a code engraved in stone dating to the 6th century BC, slaves (doulos or oikeus) found themselves in a state of great dependence. Their children belonged to the master.^[98] The master was responsible for all their offences, and, inversely, he received amends for crimes committed against his slaves by others.^[99] In the Gortyn code, where all punishment was monetary, fines were doubled for slaves committing a misdemeanour or felony. Conversely, an offence committed against a slave was much less expensive than an offence committed against a free person. As an example, the rape of a free woman by a slave was punishable by a fine of 200 staters, while the rape of a non-virgin slave by another slave brought a fine of only one obolus.^[100] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Inscription of the Great Code at Gortyn The Gortyn code of law (also called the Great Code[1]) was the codification of the civil law of the ancient Greek city state of Gortyn, southern Crete. ... Inheritance regulations, fragment of the 11th column of the Law Code of Gortyn, Louvre This article is about the ancient city in Crete; another place with the same name is Gortyna, Arcadia. ... For other uses, see Crete (disambiguation). ... Inheritance regulations, fragment of the 11th column of the Law Code of Gortyn, Louvre This article is about the ancient city in Crete; another place with the same name is Gortyna, Arcadia. ... Inscription of the Great Code at Gortyn The Gortyn code of law (also called the Great Code[1]) was the codification of the civil law of the ancient Greek city state of Gortyn, southern Crete. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... The stater was an ancient coin of Greek or Lydian origin which circulated from about 500 BC to 50 AD. It was also heavily used by Celtic tribes. ...

Slaves did, however, have the right to possess a house and livestock which could be transmitted to descendants, as could clothing and household furnishings.^[99] Their family was recognized by law: they could marry, divorce, write a testament and inherit just like free men.^[101]

A specific case: debt slavery

Prior to its interdiction by Solon, Athenians practised debt enslavement: a citizen incapable of paying his debts became "enslaved" to the creditor.^[102] The exact nature of this depency is a much controverted issue amongst modern historians: was it truly slavery or another form of bondage? However, this issue primarily concerned those peasants known as "hektēmoroi"^[103] working leased land belonging to rich landowners and unable to pay their rents. In theory, those so enslaved would be liberated when their original debts were repaid. The system was developed with variants throughout the Near East and is cited in the Bible.^[104] For other uses, see Solon (disambiguation). ... The Near East is a term commonly used by archaeologists, geographers and historians, less commonly by journalists and commentators, to refer to the region encompassing Anatolia (the Asian portion of modern Turkey), the Levant (modern Israel/Palestine, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon), Georgia, Armenia, and... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library. ...

Solon put an end to it with the σεισάχθεια / seisakhtheia, liberation of debts, which prevented all claim to the person by the debtor and forbade the sale of free Athenians, including by themselves. Aristotle in his Constitution of the Athenians quotes one of Solon's poems: For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... The Constitution of the Athenians or of Athens (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenians) is the name of either of two texts from Classical antiquity, one probably by Aristotle, the other attributed to Xenophon, but not by him. ...

And many a man whom fraud or law had sold
Far from his god-built land, an outcast slave,
I brought again to Athens; yea, and some,
Exiles from home through debt’s oppressive load,
Speaking no more the dear Athenian tongue,
But wandering far and wide, I brought again;
And those that here in vilest slavery (douleia)
Crouched ‘neath a master’s (despōtes) frown, I set them free.^[105]

Though much of Solon's vocabulary is that of "traditional" slavery, servitude for debt was at least different in that the enslaved Athenian remained an Athenian, dependent on another Athenian, in his place of birth.^[106] It is this aspect which explains the great wave of discontent with slavery of the 6th century BC, which was not intended to free all slaves but only those enslaved by debt.^[107] The reforms of Solon did, however, leave two exceptions: the guardian of an unmarried woman who had lost her virginity had the right to sell her as a slave,^[108] and a citizen could “expose” (i.e., abandon) unwanted newborn children.^[109] (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time...

Manumission

The practice of manumission is confirmed to have existed in Chios from the 6th century BC.^[110] It probably dates back to an earlier period, as it was an oral procedure. Informal emancipations are also confirmed in the classical period. It was sufficient to have witnesses, who would escort the citizen to a public emancipation of his slave, either at the theatre or before a public tribunal.^[111] This practice was outlawed in Athens in the middle of the 6th century BC in order to avoid public disorder. Manumission is the act of freeing a slave, done at the will of the owner. ... Chios (Greek: , alternative transliterations Khios and Hios), is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea seven kilometres (five miles) off the Turkish coast. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... For other uses of Greek Theatre, see Greek theatre (disambiguation). ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time...

The practice became more common in the 4th century BC and gave rise to inscriptions in stone which have been recovered from shrines such as Delphi and Dodona. They primarily date to the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, and the 1st century AD. Collective manumission was possible; an example is known from the 2nd century BC in the island of Thasos. It probably took place during a period of war as a reward for the slaves' loyalty,^[112] but in most cases the documentation deals with a voluntary act on the part of the master (predominantly male, but in the Hellenistic period also female). The slave was often required to pay for himself an amount at least equivalent to his street value. To do this he could use his savings or take a loan (ἔρανος / eranos) from his master, a friend, or a client, which last was often the case for a courtesan, one of the most famous examples of which involved the hetaera Neaira.^[113] The emancipation was often of a religious nature, where the slave was considered to be "sold" to a deity, often Delphian Apollo,^[114] or was consecrated after his emancipation. The temple would receive a portion of the monetary transaction and would guarantee the contract. The manumission could also be entirely civil, in which case the magistrate played the role of the deity.^[115] The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. ... For other uses, see Delphi (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Dodona (disambiguation). ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... The 1st century was that century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Thasos or Thassos (Greek: Θάσος, Ottoman Turkish: طاشوز Taşöz, Bulgarian: ) is an island in the northern Aegean Sea, close to the coast of Thrace and the plain of the river Nestos (during the Ottoman times Kara-Su). ... In ancient Greece, hetaerae (in Greek , hetairai) were courtesans, that is to say, sophisticated companions and prostitutes. ... For other uses, see Apollo (disambiguation). ...

The slave's freedom could be either total or partial, at the master's whim. In the former, the emancipated slave was legally protected against all attempts at re-enslavement—for instance, on the part of the former master's inheritors.^[116] In the latter case, the emancipated slave could be liable to a number of obligations to the former master. The most restrictive contract was the paramone, a type of enslavement of limited duration during which time the master retained practically absolute rights.^[117]

In regard to the city, the emancipated slave was far from equal to a citizen by birth. He was liable to all types of obligations, as one can see from the proposals of Plato in The Laws:^[118] presentation three times monthly at the home of the former master, forbidden to become richer than him, etc. In fact, the status of emancipated slaves was similar to that of Metics, the residing foreigners, who were free but did not enjoy a citizen's rights.^[119] For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... In ancient Greece, the term metic meant resident alien, a person who did not have citizen rights in their Greek city-state (polis) of residence. ...

Spartan slaves?

Spartan citizens used Helots, a dependent group collectively owned by the state. It is uncertain whether they had chattel slaves as well. There are mentions of people manumitted by Spartans, which is supposedly forbidden for Helots, or sold outside of Lakonia: the poet Alcman;^[120] a Philoxenos from Cytherea, reputedly enslaved with all his fellow citizens when his city was conquered, later sold to an Athenian;^[121] a Spartan cook bought by Dionysius the Elder or by a king of Pontus, both versions being mentioned by Plutarch;^[122] and the famous Spartan nurses, much appreciated by Athenian parents.^[123] For modern day Sparta, see Sparti (municipality). ... Helots were Peloponnesian Greeks who were enslaved under Spartan rule. ... The word Lakonia describes the geographic area of Lakedaimon. ... Alcman (also Alkman, Greek ) (7th century BC) was an Ancient Greek choral lyric poet from Sparta. ... Cytherea can be: Another name for the goddess Aphrodite of Greek mythology, A synonym of the orchid genus Calypso. ... This page is about Dionysius the tyrant of Syracuse. ... Traditional rural Pontic house A man in traditional clothes from Trabzon, illustration Pontus is the name which was applied, in ancient times, to extensive tracts of country in the northeast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the main), by...

Some texts mention both slaves and Helots, which seems to indicate that they were not the same thing. Pseudo-Plato in Alcibiades I cites "the ownership of slaves, and notably Helots" amongst the Spartan riches,^[124] and Plutarch writes about "slaves and Helots".^[125] Finally, according to Thucydides, the agreement which ended the 464 BC revolt of Helots stated that any Messenian rebel who might hereafter be found within the Peloponnese was "to be the slave of his captor", which means that the ownership of chattel slaves was not illegal at that time. The First Alcibiades or Alcibiades I, a dialogue featuring Alcibiades in conversation with Socrates, is ascribed to Plato, although scholars are divided on the question of its authenticity. ... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ...

Most historians thus concur that chattel slaves were indeed used in Sparta, at least after the Lacedemonian victory of 404 BC against Athens, but not in great numbers and only amongst the upper classes.^[126] As was the case in the other Greek cities, chattel slaves could be purchased at the market or taken in war.

Slavery conditions

Black captive with tied hands, Ptolemaic Egypt, musée du Louvre

It is difficult to appreciate the condition of Greek slaves. According to pseudo-Aristotle, the daily routine of slaves could be summed up in three words: "work, discipline, and feeding".^[127] Xenophon's advice is to treat slaves as domestic animals, that is to say punish disobedience and reward good behaviour.^[128] For his part, Aristotle prefers to see slaves treated as children and to use not only orders but also recommendations, as the slave is capable of understanding reasons when they are explained.^[129] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (630x1260, 454 KB) Description Description: Black youth with hands bound behing his back. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (630x1260, 454 KB) Description Description: Black youth with hands bound behing his back. ... The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state from southern Syria... The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre) in Paris, France, is one of the largest and most famous museums in the world. ...

Greek literature abounds with scenes of slaves being flogged; it was a means of forcing them to work, as was control of rations, clothing, and rest. This violence could be meted out by the master as well as the supervisor, who was possibly also a slave. Thus, at the beginning of Aristophanes' The Knights (4–5), two slaves complain of being "bruised and thrashed without respite" by their new supervisor. However, Aristophanes himself cites what is a typical old saw in Ancient Greek comedy: This article is about the 5-4th century BC dramatist. ... Aristophanes play The Knights is an unbridled criticism of Cleon, one of the most powerful men in ancient Athens. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ...

"He also dismissed those slaves who kept on running off, or deceiving someone, or getting whipped. They were always led out crying, so one of their fellow slaves could mock the bruises and ask then: 'Oh you poor miserable fellow, what's happened to your skin? Surely a huge army of lashes from a whip has fallen down on you and laid waste your back?'"^[130]

In fact, the condition of slaves varied very much according to their status; the mine slaves of Laureion and the pornai (brother prostitutes) lived a particularly brutal existence, while public slaves, craftsmen, tradesmen and bankers enjoyed relative independence.^[131] In return for a fee (ἀποφορά / apophora) paid to their master, they could live and work alone.^[132] They could thus earn some money on the side, sometimes enough to purchase their freedom. Potential emancipation was indeed a powerful motivator, though the real scale of this is difficult to estimate.^[133] Courtesan and her client, Attican Pelike with red figures by Polygnotus, c. ...

Ancient writers considered that Attic slaves enjoyed a “peculiarly happy lot”:^[134] Pseudo-Xenophon deplores the liberties taken by Athenian slaves: "as for the slaves and Metics of Athens, they take the greatest licence; you cannot just strike them, and they do not step aside to give you free passage".^[135] This alleged good treatment did not prevent 20,000 Athenian slaves from running away at the end of the Peloponnesian War at the incitement of the Spartan garrison at Attica in Decelea.^[136] These were principally skilled artisans (kheirotekhnai), probably amongst the better-treated slaves. The title of a 4th-century comedy by Antiphanes, The Runaway-catcher (Δραπεταγωγός),^[137] suggests that slave flight was not uncommon.^[138] Conversely, the absence of a large-scale Greek slave revolt comparable to that of Spartacus in Rome, for instance, can undoubtedly be explained by the relative dispersion of Greek slaves, which would have prevented any large-scale planning. It should be noted though that slave revolts were rare, even in Rome or the American South. Individual acts of rebellion of slaves against their master, even if scarce, are not unheard of; a judicial speech mentions the attempted murder of his master by a boy slave, not twelve years old.^[139] “Athenian War” redirects here. ... Attica (in Greek: Αττική, Attike; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a periphery (subdivision) in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece. ... Decelea, modern Dekeleia or Dekelia, Deceleia or Decelia, previous name Tatoi was a decisive source of supplies for Athens. ... Antiphanes, the most important writer of the Middle Attic comedy with the exception of Alexis, lived from about 408 to 334 BC. He was apparently a foreigner who settled in Athens, where he began to write about 387. ... This article is about the historical figure. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ...

Views of Greek slavery

Historical views

Depiction of a slave seated on an altar, looking at the purse he is about to steal, c. 400–375 BC, Louvre

No author of Antiquity calls the existence of slavery into question; at most, they admit that certain slaves may have been unjustly enslaved. To Homer and the pre-classical authors, slavery was an inevitable consequence of war. Heraclitus states that "War is the father of all, the king of all ... he turns some into slaves and sets others free".^[140] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (990x1760, 943 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient Greece Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (990x1760, 943 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Slavery in ancient Greece Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner... This article is about the museum. ... For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). ... Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek - Herákleitos ho Ephésios (Herakleitos the Ephesian)) (about 535 - 475 BC), known as The Obscure (Ancient Greek - ho Skoteinós), was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor. ...

During the classical period, the main justification for slavery was economic.^[141] From a moral point of view, the idea of "natural" slavery emerged at the same time; thus, as Aeschylus states in The Persians, the Greeks "[o]f no man are they called the slaves or vassals",^[142] while the Persians, as Euripides states in Helen, "are all slaves, except one" — the Great King.^[143] Hippocrates theorizes about this latent idea at the end of the 5th century BC. According to him, the temperate climate of Anatolia produced a placid and submissive people.^[144] This explanation is reprised by Plato,^[145] then Aristotle in Politics,^[146] where he develops the concept of "natural slavery": "for he that can foresee with his mind is naturally ruler and naturally master, and he that can do these things with his body is subject and naturally a slave."^[147] As opposed to an animal, a slave can comprehend reason but "…has not got the deliberative part at all."^[148] This article is about the ancient Greek playwright. ... The Persians (Πέρσαι) is a tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus. ... This article is about the Persian people, an ethnic group found mainly in Iran. ... A statue of Euripides. ... Helen is a drama by Euripides, probably first produced in 412 BC for the Dionysia. ... Myst franchise Games Myst Riven Myst III: Exile Myst IV: Revelation Myst V: End of Ages Uru: Ages Beyond Myst Ages of: Myst Riven Myst III: Exile Myst IV: Revelation Uru Novels Myst: The Book of Atrus   Tiana   Dni Comic Books #0   #1 Miscellaneous Dni Ages   The... For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ... The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... This article is about two nested areas of Turkey, a plateau region within a peninsula. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Aristotles Politics (Greek Πολιτικά) is a work of political philosophy. ...

In parallel, the concept that all men, whether Greek or barbarian, belonged to the same race was being developed by the Sophists^[149] and thus that certain men were slaves although they had the soul of a freeman and vice versa.^[150] Aristotle himself recognized this possibility and argued that slavery could not be imposed unless the master was better than the slave, in keeping with his theory of "natural" slavery.^[151] The Sophists concluded that true servitude was not a matter of status but a matter of spirit; thus, as Menander stated, “be free in the mind, although you are slave: and thus you will no longer be a slave”.^[152] This idea, repeated by the Stoics and the Epicurians, was not so much an opposition to slavery as a trivialisation of it.^[153] Sophism can mean two very different things: In the modern definition, a sophism is a confusing or illogical argument used for deceiving someone. ... Bust of Menander Menander (342–291 BC) (Greek ), Greek dramatist, the chief representative of the New Comedy, was born in Athens. ... A restored Stoa in Athens. ... Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. ...

The Greeks could not comprehend an absence of slaves. Slaves exist even in the "Cloudcuckooland" of Artistophanes' The Birds as well as in the ideal cities of Plato's Laws or Republic.^[154] The utopian cities of Phaleas of Chalcedon and Hippodamus of Miletus are based on the equal distribution of property, but public slaves are used respectively as craftsmen^[155] and land workers.^[156] The "reversed cities" placed women in power or even saw the end of private property, as in Lysistrata or Assemblywomen, but could not picture slaves in charge of masters. The only societies without slaves were those of the Golden Age, where all needs were met. In this type of society, as explained by Plato,^[157] one reaped generously without sowing. In Telekleides' Amphictyons^[158] barley loaves fight with wheat loaves for the honour of being eaten by men. Moreover, objects move themselves—dough kneads itself, and the jug pours itself. Society without slaves is thus relegated to a different time and space. In a "normal" society, one needs slaves. The Birds (Ornithes) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes in 414 BC, and performed that year for the Festival of Dionysus. ... Hippodamus of Miletus (sometimes also called Hippodamos), was a Greek architect of the 5th century BC. He created city plans that featured order and regularity, in contrast to the more common intricacy and confusion common to cities such as Athens. ... Lysistrata (Attic Greek: Λυσιστράτη Lysistratê, Doric Greek: Λυσιστράτα Lysistrata), loosely translated to she who disbands armies, is an anti-war Greek comedy, written in 411 BC by Aristophanes. ... Aristophanes Assemblywomen (or in Greek Ecclesiazousae ) is a play similar in theme to Lysistrata in that a large portion of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Modern views

Theatre mask of a First slave in Greek comedy, 2nd century BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Slavery in Greek antiquity has long been an object of apologetic discourse among Christians, who awarded themselves the merit of its collapse. From the 16th century the discourse became moralizing in nature. The existence of colonial slavery had significant impact on the debate, with some authors lending it civilizing merits and others denouncing its misdeeds.^[159] Thus Henri Wallon in 1847 published a History of Slavery in Antiquity amongst his works for the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (800x900, 233 KB) Masque de théâtre en marbre pentélique trouvé à Athènes près de la Porte Dipylon. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (800x900, 233 KB) Masque de théâtre en marbre pentélique trouvé à Athènes près de la Porte Dipylon. ... ɾdrama are obscure. ... Greek comedy is the name given to a wide genre of theatrical plays written, and performed, in Ancient Greece. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Façade of the National Archaeological museum of Athens. ... Apologists are authors, writers, editors of scientific logs or academic journals, and leaders known for taking on the points in arguments, conflicts or positions that are either placed under popular scrutinies or viewed under persecutory examinations. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... Henri-Alexandre Wallon (December 23, 1812 - November 13, 1904), French historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes. ... This article is about the abolition of slavery. ... For the French colonial postage stamps, see French Colonies. ...

In the 19th century a politico-economic discourse emerged. It concerned itself with distinguishing the phases in the organisation of human societies and correctly identifying the place of Greek slavery. The influence of Marx is decisive; for him the ancient society was characterized by development of private ownership and the dominant (and not secondary as in other pre-capitalist societies) character of slavery as a mode of production.^[160] The Positivists represented by the historian Eduard Meyer (Slavery in Antiquity, 1898) were soon to oppose the Marxist theory. According to him slavery was the foundation of Greek democracy. It was thus a legal and social phenomena, and not economic.^[161] Current historiography developed in the 20th century. Led by authors such as Joseph Vogt, it saw in slavery the conditions for the development of elites. Conversely, the theory also demonstrates an opportunity for slaves to join the elite. Finally, Vogt estimates that modern society, founded on humanist values, has surpassed this level of development.^[162] Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Marx is a common German surname. ... In the writings of Karl Marx and the Marxist theory of historical materialism, a mode of production (in German: Produktionsweise, meaning the way of producing) is a specific combination of: productive forces: these include human labor-power, tools, equipment, buildings and technologies, materials, and improved land social and technical relations... Positivism is a philosophy that states that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. ... Eduard Meyer (January 25, 1855 - August 31, 1930) was a German historian, born at Hamburg and educated at the universities of Bonn and Leipzig. ... Year 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Marxism is both the theory and the political practice (that is, the praxis) derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999...

In 2007, Greek slavery remains the subject of historiographical debate, on two questions in particular: Can it be said that ancient Greece was a "slave society"? Did Greek slaves comprise a social class?^[163] Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ...

Notes

For other uses, see Odyssey (disambiguation). ... Slaughter of the suitors by Odysseus and Telemachus, Campanian red-figure bell-krater, ca. ... title page of the Rihel edition of ca. ... Aristarchus of Samothrace, Gr. ... Zenodotus, Greek grammarian and critic, pupil of Philetas of Cos, was a native of Ephesus. ... Aristophanes of Byzantium, Gr. ... A Greek-English Lexicon is the standard lexicographical work of the ancient Greek language, begun in the nineteenth century and now in its ninth (revised) edition. ... This article is about the ancient syllabary. ... In Greek mythology, Chryseis (Greek: Χρύσηίς, Khrysēís) was a Trojan woman, the daughter of Chryses. ... In Greek mythology, BrisÄ“is (Greek Βρισηίς) was a Trojan widow (from Lyrnessus) who was abducted during the Trojan War by Achilles upon the death of her three brothers and husband, King Mynes of Lyrnessus, in the fight. ... In Greek mythology, Adrastus, or Adrastos (he who stands his ground, son of Talaus) was one of the three kings at Argos, along with Iphis and Amphiaraus, who was married to Adrastus sister Eriphyle. ... Antimachus may refer to these historical persons: Antimachus I, a Graeco-Bactrian king. ... Zeus turning Lycaon into a wolf, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius. ... The name Ulysses can mean: The Roman equivalent of Odysseus A 1922 novel by James Joyce: Ulysses (novel) A 1967 movie based on the novel, Ulysses (movie) A solar probe: Ulysses (spacecraft) A poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson A anime television program produced by DiC Entertainment: Ulysses 31 An indie... In Greek mythology, Alcinous (sometimes with the diacritical mark Alcinoüs; also transliterated as Alkínoös) was a son of Nausithous and father of Nausicaa and Laodamas with Arete. ... For other uses, see Hector (disambiguation). ... Andromache grieves the loss of Hector In Greek mythology, Andromache was the wife of Hector and daughter of Eetion, sister to Podes. ... This article is about a character in Greek mythology. ... For other uses, see Achilles (disambiguation). ... A cup depicting Achilles bandaging Patroklos arm, by the Sosias Painter. ... Odysseus and Euryclea, by Christian Gottlob Heyne In Greek mythology, Euryclea, or Eurýkleia was the wet-nurse of Odysseus. ... Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, better known as FGrH (Fragments of the Greek Historians), is a monumental collection by Felix Jacoby of the works of those ancient Greek historians whose works have been lost, but we have citations, extracts or summaries. ... Athenaeus (ca. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ... Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , ca. ... Diodorus Siculus (c. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“rodotos Halikarnāsseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ... Philostratus, was the name of several, three (or four), Greek sophists of the Roman imperial period: Philostratus the Athenian (c. ... Life of Apollonius Tyana is the story of Apollonius of Tyana (170-247 CE), a sophist teacher of the school of Pythagoras, written by Philostratus. ... The Hellenistic period of Greek history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which... Hypereides (c. ... This article is about the musical term. ... In Ancient Greece and/or Greek mythology, the name Lycurgus/Lykurgus can refer to: An alternate name for Lycomedes. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Constitution of the Athenians or of Athens (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenians) is the name of either of two texts from Classical antiquity, one probably by Aristotle, the other attributed to Xenophon, but not by him. ... Herakleides Lembos was an Ancient Greek philosophical writer. ... Suda (Σουδα or alternatively Suidas) is the name of a massive medieval lexicon, not an author as was formerly supposed. ... The Third Philippic was delivered by the prominent Athenian statesman and orator, Demosthenes, in 341 BC. It constitutes the third of the four philippics. ... Aristophanes Assemblywomen (or in Greek Ecclesiazousae ) is a play similar in theme to Lysistrata in that a large portion of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. ... Titus Macchius Plautus, generally referred to simply as Plautus, was a playwright of Ancient Rome. ... This article is about the musical term. ... Hippias can also refer to a son of Pisistratus and a tyrant of Athens. ... Protagoras is the title of one of Platos dialogues. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A statue of Euripides. ... Athenaeus (ca. ...

References

Walter Burkert (born Neuendettelsau (Bavaria), February 2, 1931), the most eminent living scholar of Greek myth and cult, is an emeritus professor of classics at the University of Zurich, Switzerland who has also taught in the United Kingdom and the United States. ... Paul Cartledge is a Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University, and a fellow of Clare College. ... École française dAthènes (the French School of Athens) or the EfA with the f decapitalized is a French-speaking university school promoting the studies of the language, the history and Ancient Greece. ... Moses Finley Moses Finley (d. ... Geoffrey Stephen Kirk (December 3, 1921-March 2003 ) was a British classical scholar. ... Arnold Hugh Martin A.H.M. Jones (1904-1970) was a prominent 20th century historian of classical antiquity, particularly of the later Roman Empire. ... Ellen Meiksins Wood (born 1942 in New York City) is a Marxist scholar. ...

Further reading

Moses Finley Moses Finley (d. ... The Ancient Economy is a book about the economic system of the classical antiquity written by the classicist Moses I. Finley. ... Aardappeleters (The Potato Eaters) by Vincent Van Gogh, 1885. ... The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World from the Archaic Age to the Arab Conquests (ISBN 01-9872-112-9), published in 1982, is a major work of the British classical historian G. E. M. de Ste. ... Pierre Vidal-Naquet (1930, Paris) is a French historian, teacher at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). ... Jean-Pierre Vernant, born 4 January 1914 in Provins, France, French historian and anthropologist, specialist in ancient Greece and particularly Greek mythology. ...

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Slavery in Ancient Greece

• (French) GIREA, The International Group for Research on Slavery in Antiquity (in French)
• Greek law bibliographic database at Nomoi
• Documents on Greek slavery on the Ancient History Sourcebook.
• (French) Index thématiques de l'esclavage et de la dépendance Subject index on slavery and related topics, by author.
• (French) Bibliothèque numérique ISTA Free library

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Remains of the agora built in Athens in the Roman period (east of the classical agora). ... [Image:http://www. ... A 1908 illustration of the temple as it might have looked in the 5th century BCE Ruins of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece Metope showing Hercules and the Cretan Bull The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece was built between 470 BCE and completed by 456 BCE to... “The Colossus of Rhodes” redirects here. ... Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) Temple of Hephaestus, Athens: eastern face The Temple of Hephaestus in central ancient Athens, Greece, is the best-preserved ancient Greek temple in the world, but is far less well... General location of Samothrace The Samothrace Temple Complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods is one of the principal Pan-Hellenic religious sanctuaries, located on the island of Samothrace within the larger Thrace. ... Insert non-formatted text here This is a timeline of ancient Greece. ... Aegean civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean. ... The Minoan civilization was a bronze age civilization which arose on Crete, an island in the Aegean Sea. ... This article is about the Greek archaeological site. ... The Greek Dark Ages (ca. ... Parthenon This article is on the term Classical Greece itself. ... The Hellenistic period of Greek history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which... Roman Greece is the period of Greek history following the Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC until the reestablishment of the city of Byzantium and the naming of the city by Emperor Constantine I as the capital of the Roman Empire (as Nova... This an alphabetical list of ancient Greeks. ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... // Lycurgus Lycurgus (Greek: , Lukoûrgos; 700 BC?–630 BC) was the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. ... For the Shakespeare play, see Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ... Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (Greek: ; English /ælsɪbaɪədi:z/; 450 BC–404 BC), also transliterated as Alkibiades, was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. ... Demosthenes (384–322 BC, Greek: Δημοσθένης, Dēmosthénēs) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. ... Themistocles (Greek: ; c. ... For other uses, see Archimedes (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation). ... The Charioteer of Delphi, Delphi Archaeological Museum. ... The great kouros of Samos, the largest surviving kouros in Greece (Samos Archaeological Museum) The Ancient Greek word kouros meant a male youth, and is used by Homer to refer to young soldiers. ... The Lady of Auxerre, an example of a kore Kore (Greek - maiden), plural korai, is the name given to a type of ancient Greek sculpture of the archaic period, the female equivalent of a kouros. ... The Kritios boy belongs to the Late Archaic period and is considered the precursor to the later classical sculptures of athletes. ... The Doryphoros of Polykleitos The Doryphoros (Greek δορυφόρος, lit. ... Statue of Zeus The Greek sculptor Phidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall Statue of Zeus in about 435 bc. ... Townley Discobolus, London, British Museum, with incorrectly restored head defying the balance of the figure The Discobolus of Myron (discus thrower Greek Δισκοβόλος του Μύρωνα) is a famous Roman marble copy of a lost Greek bronze original, completed during the zenith of the classical period between 460-450 BC. Myrons Discobolus was... -1... The statue of Laocoön and His Sons, also called the Laocoön Group, is a monumental marble sculpture, now in the Vatican Museums, Rome. ... Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema Phidias (or Pheidias) (in ancient Greek, ) (c. ... Death of Sarpedon, painted by Euphronios Euphronios was a Greek painter and potter of red-figure vases, active in Athens between 520 and 470 BC, the time of the Persian Wars. ... Polykleitos (or Polycletus, Polyklitos, Polycleitus, Polyclitus) the Elder was a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC and the early 4th century BC. Next to famous Phidias, Myron and Kresilas he is the most important sculptor of the Classical antiquity. ... Minotaur, from a fountain in Athens, reflecting Myrons lost group of Theseus and the Minotaur (National Archeological Museum, Athens) Myron of Eleutherae (Greek Μύρων) working 480-444 BCE, was an Athenian sculptor from the mid-fifth century BCE.[1] He was born in Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and... Cavalry from the Parthenon Frieze, West II, British Museum. ... Praxiteles of Athens, the son of Cephisodotus, was the greatest of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century BC, who has left an imperishable mark on the history of art. ...