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Snake venom is a highly modified saliva^{[citation needed]} that is produced by special glands of certain species of snakes. The gland which secretes the zootoxin is a modification of the parotid salivary gland of other vertebrates, and is usually situated on each side of the head below and behind the eye, invested in a muscular sheath. It is provided with large alveoli in which the venom is stored before being conveyed by a duct to the base of the channelled or tubular fang through which it is ejected. Snake venom is a combination of many different proteins and enzymes. Many of these proteins are harmless to humans, but some are toxins. Families Acrochordidae Aniliidae Anomalepididae Anomochilidae Atractaspididae Boidae Bolyeriidae Colubridae Cylindrophiidae Elapidae Hydrophiidae Leptotyphlopidae Loxocemidae Pythonidae Tropidophiidae Typhlopidae Uropeltidae Viperidae Xenopeltidae Snakes are cold blooded legless reptiles closely related to lizards, which share the order Squamata. ... For the toad wart, see parotoid gland. ... Typical classes Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Placodermi - extinct Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii - extinct Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Amphibia (amphibians) Reptilia (reptiles) Aves (birds) Mammalia (mammals) Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordates, specifically, those with backbones or spinal columns. ... The alveoli (singular:alveolus), tiny hollow sacs which are continuous with the airways, are the sites of gas exchange with the blood. ... Wasp sting, with droplet of venom Venom (literally, poison of animal origin) is any of a variety of toxins used by animals, for the purpose of defense and hunting. ... Look up fang in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Note that snake venoms are generally not dangerous when ingested, and are therefore not technically poisons. Wasp sting, with droplet of venom Venom (literally, poison of animal origin) is any of a variety of toxins used by animals, for the purpose of defense and hunting. ... For other uses, see Poison (disambiguation). ...

Chemistry

Snake venom is a mixture of toxins and different enzymes used for other purposes like increasing the prey's uptake of toxins.

• Phosphodiesterases are used to interfere with the prey's cardiac system, mainly to lower the blood pressure.
• Snake venom inhibits cholinesterase to make the prey lose muscle control.
• Hyaluronidase increases tissue permeability to increase the rate that other enzymes are absorbed into the prey's tissues.
• Amino acid oxidases and proteases are used for digestion. Amino acid oxidase also triggers some other enzymes and is responsible for the yellow color of the venom of some species.
• Snake venom often contains ATPases which are used for breaking down ATP to disrupt the prey's energy fuel use.

A phosphodiesterase (PDE) is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds. ... A sphygmomanometer, a device used for measuring arterial pressure. ... Acetylcholinesterase In biochemistry, cholinesterase is a term which refers to one of the two enzymes: Acetylcholinesterase (EC 3. ... Hyaluronidase The hyaluronidases (EC 3. ... An oxidase is any enzyme that catalyzes an oxidation/reduction reaction involving molecular oxygen (O2) as the electron acceptor. ... Proteases (proteinases, peptidases, or proteolytic enzymes) are enzymes that break peptide bonds between amino acids of proteins. ... ATPases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a free phosphate ion. ...

Evolution

The presence of enzymes in snake venom led to the belief that it was an adaptation to assist in the digestion of prey, but studies of the western diamondback rattlesnake, a snake with highly proteolytic venom, show that envenomation has no impact on the time food takes to pass through the gut. More research is needed to determine the selective pressures that have armed snakes in this way.^[1] Digestive enzymes are enzymes in the alimentary tract with a purpose of breaking down components of food so that they can be taken up by the organism. ... Binomial name about 30 Species about 30 Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous New World snakes, genera Crotalus and Sistrurus, which have a small noise-making jointed rattle on their tails. ... Proteolysis is the directed degradation (digestion) of proteins by cellular enzymes called proteases or by intramolecular digestion. ... For the Physics term GUT, please refer to Grand unification theory The gastrointestinal or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ...

Injection

Acetylcholine receptor blocked by cobra venom (PDB code: 1yi5). A similar effect can be achieved by high doses of curare or nicotine (more details...)

Image File history File links Acethylcholine_receptor_blocked_by_cobra_venom. ... Image File history File links Acethylcholine_receptor_blocked_by_cobra_venom. ...

Vipers

In the vipers, which furnish examples of the most highly developed venom delivery apparatus, although inferior to some in its toxic effects, the venom gland is very large and in intimate relation with the masseter or temporal muscle, consisting of two bands, the superior arising from behind the eye, the inferior extending from the gland to the mandible. A groove or duct can be located traveling from the modified salivary glands where venom is produced down the length of the fang and out to the tip. In some species, notably the vipers and cobras, this groove is completely closed over. In other species, such as the adders and mambas, this groove is not covered, or only covered partially. From the anterior extremity of the gland the duct passes below the eye and above the maxillary bone, where it makes a bend, to the basal orifice of the venom fang, which is ensheathed in a thick fold of mucous membrane, the vagina dentis. By means of the movable maxillary bone hinged to the prefrontal, and connected with the tranverse bone which is pushed forward by muscles set in action by the opening of the mouth, the tubular fang is erected and the venom discharged through the distal orifice in which it terminates. When the snake bites, the jaws close up, causing the gland to be powerfully wrung, and the venom pressed out into the duct. Synonyms Viperae - Laurenti, 1768 Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperidae - Gray, 1825[1] The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from the viperines (subfamily Viperinae). ... Toxic redirects here, but this is also the name of a song by Britney Spears; see Toxic (song) Look up toxic and toxicity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. ... The temporalis muscle is one of the muscles of mastication. ... The maxillae are the largest bones of the face, except for the mandible, and form, by their union, the whole of the upper jaw. ... The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, and are involved in absorption and secretion. ...

Colubrids

In some of the proteroglyphous colubrids, the venom fangs are not tubular, but only channelled and open along the anterior surface; and as the maxillary bone in these snakes is more or less elongate, and not or but slightly movable vertically, the venom duct runs above the latter, making a bend only at its anterior extremity, and the transverse bone does not have the same action on the erection of the fangs. Otherwise the mechanism is the same. Proteroglypha, from the Greek words vaugly meaning front grooved. The term generally refers to a group of venomous snakes which have front of the jaw positioned, fixed fangs that are specially grooved for venom delivery. ... Subfamilies Boodontinae Calamariinae Colubrinae Dipsadinae Homalopsinae Natricinae Pareatinae Psammophiinae Pseudoxenodontinae Pseudoxyrhophiinae Xenodermatinae Xenodontinae See text for genera. ...

In the opisthoglyphous colubrids, with grooved teeth situated at the posterior extremity of the maxilla, a small posterior portion of the upper labial or salivary gland is converted into a venom-secreting organ, distinguished by a light yellow colour, provided with a duct larger than any of those of the labial gland, and proceeding inward and downward to the base of the grooved fang; the duct is not in direct connection with the groove, but the two communicate through the mediation of the cavity enclosed by the folds of mucous membrane surrounding the tooth, and united in front. Opisthoglypha is a term that generally refers to a kind of snake which has some of the posterior maxillary teeth enlarged and grooved to aid in venom delivery. ... Subfamilies Boodontinae Calamariinae Colubrinae Dipsadinae Homalopsinae Natricinae Pareatinae Psammophiinae Pseudoxenodontinae Pseudoxyrhophiinae Xenodermatinae Xenodontinae See text for genera. ... The maxilla (plural: maxillae) is a fusion of two bones along the palatal fissure that form the upper jaw. ...

Mechanics of biting

Vipera berus, one fang with a small venom stain in glove, the other still in place

The reserve or successional teeth, which are always present just behind or on the side of the functional fang of all venomous snakes, are in no way connected with the duct until called upon to replace a fang that has been lost. It could not be otherwise, since the duct would require a new terminal portion for each new fang; and as the replacement takes place alternately from two parallel series, the new venom-conveying tooth does not occupy exactly the same position as its predecessor. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2272 × 1704 pixels, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2272 × 1704 pixels, file size: 1. ... Binomial name (Linnaeus, 1758) Synonyms [Coluber] berus - Linnaeus, 1758 [Coluber] Chersea - Linnaeus, 1758 Coluber prester - Linnaeus, 1761 Coluber vipera Anglorum - Laurenti, 1768 Coluber Melanis - Pallas, 1771 Coluber Scytha - Pallas, 1773 C[oluber]. Scytha - Bonnaterre, 1790 Vipera melanis - Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Vipera berus - Daudin, 1803 Vipera chersea - Daudin, 1803 Vipera prester...

Two genera, Doliophis among the Elapids, and Causus among the Viperids, are highly remarkable for having the venom gland and its duct of a great length, extending along each side of the body and terminating in front of the heart. Instead of the muscles of the temporal region serving to press out the venom into the duct, this action is performed by those of the side of the body. The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of highly venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. ... The Causinae, are a subfamily of venomous vipers commonly known as night adders. ... Synonyms Viperae - Laurenti, 1768 Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperidae - Gray, 1825[1] The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from the viperines (subfamily Viperinae). ...

When biting, a Viperid snake merely strikes, discharging the venom the moment the fangs penetrate the skin, and then immediately lets it go. A proteroglyph or opisthoglyph, on the contrary, closes its jaws like a dog on the part bitten, often holding on firmly for a considerable time. The venom, which is mostly a clear, limpid fluid of a pale straw or amber colour, or rarely greenish, sometimes with a certain amount of suspended matter, is exhausted after several bites, and the glands have to recuperate. Proteroglypha, from the Greek words vaguely meaning front grooved. The term generally refers to a group of venomous snakes which have front of the jaw positioned, fixed fangs that are specially grooved for venom delivery. ... Opisthoglypha are snakes which have some of the posterior maxillary teeth enlarged and grooved to aid in venom delivery. ...

Mechanics of spitting Venom can be ejected otherwise than by a bite, as in the so-called spitting cobras of the genera Naja and Hemachatus. Some of these deadly snakes, when irritated, are capable of shooting venom from the mouth, at a distance of 4 to 8 feet. These snakes' fangs have been modified for the purposes of spitting: inside the fangs of a spitting cobra is a channel which makes a ninety degree bend to the lower front of the fang. When the snake is threatened the muscles of the venom gland squeeze the venom sack and as a result venom is projected forward. Spitters may spit thirty or forty times in succession, and even then the snake is still able to deliver a fatal bite. Spitting cobra refers to any one of several species of cobras that have the ability to spit or eject venom from their mouth when defending themselves against predators. ... Naja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes. ... Spitting cobra refers to any one of several species of cobras that have the ability to spit or eject venom from their mouth when defending themselves against predators. ...

Spitting is a defensive reaction only. The snake tends to aim for the eyes of a perceived threat; a direct hit can cause temporary shock and blindness through severe inflammation of the cornea and conjunctiva. While there are no serious results if the venom is washed away at once with plenty of water, the blindness caused by a successful spit can become permanent if left untreated. Contact with the skin is not in itself dangerous, but open wounds may become envenomed. An abscess on the skin, showing the redness and swelling characteristic of inflammation. ... The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber, providing most of an eyes optical power [1]. Together with the lens, the cornea refracts light and, as a result, helps the eye to focus. ... Image of a human eye clearly showing the blood vessels of the conjuntiva. ...

Some Effects

There are three distinct types of venom that act on the body differently.

• Hemotoxic venoms act on the heart and cardiovascular system.
• Neurotoxic venom acts on the nervous system and brain.
• Cytotoxic venom has a localized action at the site of the bite.

It is noteworthy that the size of the venom fangs is in no relation to the virulence of the venom. The comparatively innocent Indo-Malay Lachesis alluded to above have enormous fangs, whilst the smallest fangs are found in the most justly dreaded of all snakes, the Hydrophids. Hemotoxins are toxins that destroy red blood cells (hemolysis), disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage. ... The term neurotoxic is used to describe a substance, condition or state that damages the nervous system and / or brain, usually by killing neurons. ... Cytotoxicity is the quality of being poisonous to cells. ... Lachesis is a genus of highly venomous pit vipers found in the remote, forested areas in Central and South America. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Elapidae. ...

Proteroglyphous snakes

The effect of the venom of proteroglyphous snakes (Hydrophids, cobras, Bungarus, Elaps, Pseudechis, Notechis, Acanthophis) is mainly on the nervous system, respiratory paralysis being quickly produced by bringing the venom into contact with the central nervous mechanism which controls respiration; the pain and local swelling which follow a bite are not usually severe. Proteroglypha, from the Greek words vaguely meaning front grooved. The term generally refers to a group of venomous snakes which have front of the jaw positioned, fixed fangs that are specially grooved for venom delivery. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Elapidae. ... Egyptian Cobra, Naga haje This article is about snakes. ... Bungarus is a genus of venomous elapid snakes found in India and South-East Asia. ... The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of highly venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. ... The genus Pseudechis contains the group of elapids commonly referred to as the Black Snakes. ... Notechis is a genus of highly venomous elapid snakes found in Australia. ... Species Acanthophis antarcticus Acanthophis praelongus Acanthophis pyrrhus Acanthophis hawkei Acanthophis wellsei Acanthophis rugosus Acanthophis laevis Acanthophis is a genus of highly venomous elapid snakes. ... The nervous system is a highly specialized network whose principal components are nerves called neurons. ... Paralysed redirects here. ...

The bite of all the proteroglyphous elapids, even of the smallest and gentlest, such as the Elaps or coral snakes, is, so far as known, deadly to man. The coral snakes (Micrurus) are a genus of about 65 snake species, found in tropical South America and southern USA. They are venomous and related to Old World cobras. ...

Vipers

Viper venom (daboia, Echis, Lachesis, Crotalus) acts more on the vascular system, bringing about coagulation of the blood and clotting of the pulmonary arteries; its action on the nervous system is not great, no individual group of nerve-cells appears to be picked out, and the effect upon respiration is not so direct; the influence upon the circulation explains the great depression which is a symptom of Viperine envenomation. The pain of the wound is severe, and is speedily followed by swelling and discoloration. The symptoms produced by the bite of the European vipers are thus described by the best authorities on snake venom (Martin and Lamb): Binomial name Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) Synonyms Daboia - Gray, 1840 (nomen nudum) Daboia - Gray, 1842 Chersophis - Fitzinger, 1843 Daboya - Hattori, 1913[1] Coluber russelii - Shaw & Nodder, 1797 Coluber Russelii - Shaw, 1802 Coluber Daboie - Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Coluber trinoculus - Schneider In Bechstein, 1802 Vipera daboya - Daudin, 1803 Vipera... Synonyms Echis - Merrem, 1820 Toxicoa - Gray, 1849 Turanechis - Cherlin, 1990[1] Common names: saw-scaled vipers, carpet vipers. ... Lachesis is a genus of highly venomous pit vipers found in the remote, forested areas in Central and South America. ... Synonyms Crotalus - Linnaeus, 1758 Crotalophorus - Houttuyn, 1764 Caudisona - Laurenti, 1768 Crotalinus - Rafinesque, 1815 Crotalurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Crotulurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Uropsophus - Wagler, 1830 Urocrotalon - Fitzinger, 1843 Aploaspis - Cope, 1867 Aechmophrys - Coues In Wheeler, 1875 Haploaspis - Cope, 1883 Paracrotalus - Reuss, 1930[1] Common names: rattlesnakes. ... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ...

The bite is immediately followed by local pain of a burning character; the limb soon swells and becomes discoloured, and within one to three hours great prostration, accompanied by vomiting, and often diarrhoea, sets in. Cold, clammy perspiration is usual. The pulse becomes extremely feeble, and slight dyspnoea and restlessness may be seen. In severe cases, which occur mostly in children, the pulse may become imperceptible and the extremities cold; the patient may pass into coma. In from twelve to twenty-four hours these severe constitutional symptoms usually pass off; but in the meantime the swelling and discoloration have spread enormously. The limb becomes phlegmonous, and occasionally suppurates. Within a few days recovery usually occurs somewhat suddenly, but death may result from the severe depression or from the secondary effects of suppuration. That cases of death, in adults as well as in children, are not infrequent in some parts of the Continent is mentioned in the last chapter of this Introduction. Vomiting (or emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of ones stomach through the mouth. ... Diarrhoea is the correct way to spell the word Diarrhoea. ... Dyspnea (Latin dyspnoea, Greek dyspnoia from dyspnoos - short of breath) or shortness of breath (SOB) is perceived difficulty breathing or pain on breathing. ... For other uses, see Coma (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Death (disambiguation). ... Pus is a whitish-yellow or yellow substance produced during inflammatory responses of the body that can be found in regions of pyogenic bacterial infections. ...

The Viperidae differ much among themselves in the toxicity of their venom. Some, such as the Indian daboia russelli and Echis carinatus, the American vipers, Crotalus, Lachesis muta and lanceolatus, the African Causus, Bitis, and Cerastes, cause fatal results unless a remedy be speedily applied. On the other hand, the Indian and Malay Lachesis seldom cause the death of man, their bite in some instances being no worse than the sting of a hornet. The bite of the larger European Vipers may be very dangerous, and followed by fatal results, especially in children, at least in the hotter parts of the Continent; whilst the small Vipera ursinii, which hardly ever bites unless roughly handled, does not seem to be possessed of a very virulent venom, and, although very common in some parts of Austria-Hungary, is not known to have ever caused a serious accident. Synonyms Crotalus - Linnaeus, 1758 Crotalophorus - Houttuyn, 1764 Caudisona - Laurenti, 1768 Crotalinus - Rafinesque, 1815 Crotalurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Crotulurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Uropsophus - Wagler, 1830 Urocrotalon - Fitzinger, 1843 Aploaspis - Cope, 1867 Aechmophrys - Coues In Wheeler, 1875 Haploaspis - Cope, 1883 Paracrotalus - Reuss, 1930[1] Common names: rattlesnakes. ... Binomial name Lachesis muta Linnaeus, 1766 The bushmaster (Lachesis muta) is a venomous snake of the viper family. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Binomial name Vipera ursinii (Bonaparte, 1835) Synonyms Coluber foetidus - Güldenstedt In Georgi, 1801 Pelias Ursinii - Bonaparte, 1835 [P[elias]. berus] Var. ...

Opisthoglyphous colubrids

Little is known of the physiology of the venom of the opisthoglyphous colubrids, except that in most cases it approximates to that of the proteroglyphs. Experiments on Coelopeltis, Psammophis, Trimerorhinus, Dipsadomorphus, Trimorphodon, Dryophis, Tarbophis, Hypsirhina, and Cerberus, have shown these snakes to be possessed of a specific venom, small mammals, lizards, or fish, being rapidly paralyzed and succumbing in a very short time, whilst others (Eteirodipsas, Ithycyphus) do not seem to be appreciably venomous. Man, it is true, is not easily affected by the bite of these snakes, since, at least in most of those which have a long maxillary bone, the grooved fangs are placed too far back to inflict a wound under ordinary circumstances. Opisthoglypha are snakes which have some of the posterior maxillary teeth enlarged and grooved to aid in venom delivery. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Proteroglypha, from the Greek words vaguely meaning front grooved. The term generally refers to a group of venomous snakes which have front of the jaw positioned, fixed fangs that are specially grooved for venom delivery. ... Species Psammophis condanarus Psammophis leithii Psammophis longifrons Psammophis schokari . ... Species 2 species, see article. ... Species Cerberus microlepis Cerberus rynchops Cerberus (common name dog-faced water snakes) is a genus of water snakes in the family colubridae. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria For the folk-rock band see The Mammals. ... For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ...

There are, however, exceptions. A case was reported a few years ago of a man in South Africa nearly dying as a result of the bite of the Boomslang, Dispholidus tytus, the symptoms, carefully recorded, being those characteristic of Viperine envenomation, an important fact to oppose to the conclusions, based on the physiological experiments on Coelopeltis, which appeared to disprove the theory that the Viperidae may have been derived from opisthoglyphous colubrids. Binomial name Dispholidus typus (Smith, 1829) A boomslang, Dispholidus typus is a large, venomous colubrid snake native to sub-Saharan Africa. ...

Aglyphous snakes

Experiments made with the secretion of the parotid gland of Tropidonotus and Zamenis have shown that even aglyphous snakes are not entirely devoid of venom, and point to the conclusion that the physiological difference between so-called harmless and venomous snakes is only one of degree, just as there are various steps in the transformation of an ordinary parotid gland into a venom gland or of a solid tooth into a tubular or grooved fang. For the toad wart, see parotoid gland. ... Aglypha is term used to describe a group of colubrid snakes which do not have grooved or hollow fangs for venom delivery, but instead must rely on chewing their victim to allow the venom to do its job. ...

Immunity

Among snakes

The question whether all snakes are immune to their own venom is not yet definitely settled. Most snakes certainly are,^{[citation needed]} and it is a remarkable fact that certain harmless species, such as the North American Coronella getula and the Brazilian Rhacidelus brazili, are proof against the venom of the Crotalines which frequent the same districts, and which they are able to overpower and feed upon. The Cribo, Spilotes variabilis, is the enemy of the Fer-de-lance in St. Lucia, and it is said^[who?] that in their encounters the Cribo is invariably the victor. Repeated experiments have shown the European Common Snake, Tropidonotus natrix, not to be affected by the bite of Vipera berus and Vipera aspis, this being due to the presence, in the blood of the harmless snake, of toxic principles secreted by the parotid and labial glands, and analogous to those of the venom of these vipers.^{[citation needed]} North American redirects here. ... Synonyms Crotalini - Oppel, 1811 Crotales - Cuvier, 1817 Crotalidae - Gay, 1825 Crotaloidae - Fitzinger, 1826 Cophiadae - Boie, 1827 Crotaloidei - Eichwald, 1831 Crotalina - Bonaparte, 1831 Bothrophes - Fitzinger, 1843 Crotalinae - Cope, 1860 Teleuraspides - Cope, 1871 Crotalida - Strauch, 1873 Bothrophera - Garman, 1884 Cophiinae - Cope, 1895 Lachesinae - Cope, 1900 Lachesinii - Smith, Smith & Sawin, 1977 Agkistrodontinii - Hoge... Species Drymarchon caudomaculatus Drymarchon corais corais Drymarchon corais couperi endangered Drymarchon corais erebunnus endangered Drymarchon corais margaritae Drymarchon corais melanurus Drymarchon corais orizabensis Drymarchon corais rubidius Drymarchon corais unicolor The cribo is a member of the Drymarchon genus, as is the Indigo snake of the Southeastern United States. ... Binomial name (Linnaeus, 1758) Synonyms [Coluber] berus - Linnaeus, 1758 [Coluber] Chersea - Linnaeus, 1758 Coluber prester - Linnaeus, 1761 Coluber vipera Anglorum - Laurenti, 1768 Coluber Melanis - Pallas, 1771 Coluber Scytha - Pallas, 1773 C[oluber]. Scytha - Bonnaterre, 1790 Vipera melanis - Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Vipera berus - Daudin, 1803 Vipera chersea - Daudin, 1803 Vipera prester... Binomial name Vipera aspis (Linnaeus, 1758) Synonyms [Coluber] Aspis - Linnaeus, 1758 Vipera Mosis Charas - Laurenti, 1768 Vipera vulgaris - Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Vipera ocellata - Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 Coluber Charasii - Shaw, 1802 [Vipera (Echidna)] Aspis - Merrem, 1820 C[hersea]. vulgaris - Fleming, 1822 Vipera aspis - Metaxa, 1823 Aspis ocellata...

Among other animals

The Hedgehog, the Mongoose, the Secretary Bird, the Honey Badger and a few other birds feeding on snakes, are known to be immune to an ordinary dose of snake venom; whether the pig may be considered so is still uncertain, although it is well known that, owing to its subcutaneous layer of fat, it is often bitten with impunity. The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) has recently been added to the list of animals refractory to viper venom. Some populations of California Ground Squirrel are at least partially immune to Rattlesnake venom as adults. This article is about the spiny mammal. ... For other uses, see Mongoose (disambiguation). ... Binomial name Sagittarius serpentarius (Miller,JF, 1779) The Secretary Bird, Sagittarius serpentarius, is an extraordinary member of the bird of prey family. ... Binomial name Mellivora capensis (Schreber, 1776) The Ratel (Mellivora capensis), also known as the Honey Badger, is a member of the Mustelidae family. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pig (disambiguation). ... The subcutis is the layer of tissue directly underlying the cutis. ... Binomial name Eliomys quercinus Linnaeus, 1766 The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) is a rodent in the dormouse family. ... Binomial name Spermophilus beecheyi (Richardson, 1829) The California Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus beecheyi (referred to in some older sources as Otospermophilus beecheyi or Citellus beecheyi), is a common and easily observed ground squirrel of the western United States and the Baja California peninsula; it is common in Oregon and California and... Species 27 species; see list of rattlesnake species and subspecies. ...

Among Humans

Human immunity against snake venoms is one of the oldest forms of vaccinology to date (about AD 60, Psylli Tribe). Since then many humans and tribes have attempted to immunize with snake venom to achieve immunity(Bill Haast, Charles Tanner,Joel La Rocque, Harold Mierkey, Herschel Flowers, Ray Hunter, Tim Friede, Burma Toxoid Project, Habu Toxoid Project, Pakokku Snake Clan, Wanyamwesi Tribe, Dr. Eizenberger[2]). Charles Tanner and Herschel Flowers were studied with dried snake venom and achieved strong immunity(1).Joel La Rocque self injected Eastern diamondback venom and developed a high IgG neutralizing antibody for several rattlesnake species.Harold Mierkey has done so for years. Tim Friede was studied twice with a self-directed vaccine experiment using pure venom and achieved very high IgG neutralizing antibodies with mamba and cobra venom(1). The present goal is to develop a DNA-based vaccine for the Old World using the genes that encode the venom with an electroporation device for DNA delivery(1). If successful, some of the over 100,000 people that die from snakebite in the Old World will be saved. (1,2) http://dnavaccine.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1413. Friede, Tim. Venomous Snake Vaccinology, 5th World Congress of Herpetology in Africa.

Studies

The subject of snake venoms is one which has always attracted much attention and which has made great progress within the last quarter of a century. Plants used to treat snakebites in Trinidad and Tobago are made into tinctures with alcohol or olive oil and kept in rum flasks called 'snake bottles'. Snakes bottles contain several different plants and/ or insects. The plants used include the vine called monkey ladder (Bauhinia cumanensis or Bauhinia excisa, Fabaceae) is pounded and put on the bite. Alternatively a tincture is made with a piece of the vine and kept in a snake bottle. Other plants used include: mat root (Aristolochia rugosa), cat's claw (Pithocellobium unguis-cati), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), snake bush (Barleria lupulina), obie seed (Cola nitida), and wild gri gri root (Acrocomia ierensis). Some snake bottles also contain the caterpillars (Battus polydamus, Papilionidae) that eat tref leaves (Aristolochia trilobata). Emergency snake medicines are obtained by chewing a three-inch piece of the root of bois canôt (Cecropia peltata) and administering this chewed-root solution to the dog. This is a common native plant of Latin America and the Caribbean which makes it appropriate as an emergency remedy. Another native plant used is mardi gras (Renealmia alpinia)(berries), which are crushed together with the juice of wild cane (Costus scaber) and given to the bitten hunting dog.Quick fixes have included applying chewed tobacco from cigarettes,cigars or pipes as well.Making cuts around the puncture or sucking out the venom has also been helpful.

Serotherapy

Especially noteworthy is progress regarding the defensive reaction by which the blood may be rendered proof against their effect, by processes similar to vaccination—antipoisonous serotherapy.

The studies to which we allude have not only conduced to a method of treatment against snake-bites, but have thrown a new light on the great problem of immunity.

They have shown that the antitoxic sera do not act as chemical antidotes in destroying the venom, but as physiological antidotes; that, in addition to the venom glands, snakes possess other glands supplying their blood with substances antagonistic to the venom, such as also exist in various animals refractory to snake venom, the hedgehog and the mongoose for instance. Antivenom (or antivenin, or antivenene) is a biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings. ... An antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. ... This article is about the spiny mammal. ... For other uses, see Mongoose (disambiguation). ...

Regional venom specificity

Unfortunately, the specificity of the different snake venoms is such that, even when the physiological action appears identical, serum injections or graduated direct inoculations confer immunity towards one species or a few allied species only.

Thus, a European in Australia who had become immune to the poison of the deadly Australian Tiger Snake, Notechis scutatus, manipulating these snakes with impunity, and was under the impression that his immunity extended also to other species, when bitten by a Denisonia superba, an allied Elapine, died the following day. For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Notechis is a genus of highly venomous elapid snakes found in Australia. ...

In India, the serum prepared with the venom of Naja tripudians has been found to be without effect on the venom of the two species of kraits of the genus Bungarus, and the Old World vipers Daboia russelli and Echis carinatus, and the pit viper Trimeresurus popeiorum. Daboia russelli serum is without effect on colubrine venoms, or those of Echis and Trimeresurus. Bungarus is a genus of venomous elapid snakes found in India and South-East Asia. ... Binomial name Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) The Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus) is a small viper (30 cm in length) found in northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and India. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Synonyms Echis - Merrem, 1820 Toxicoa - Gray, 1849 Turanechis - Cherlin, 1990[1] Common names: saw-scaled vipers, carpet vipers. ... Trimeresurus is a genus of venomous pit vipers commonly known as bamboo vipers. ...

In Brazil, serum prepared with the venom of the New World pit viper Lachesis lanceolatus is without action on Crotalus venom. Synonyms Crotalus - Linnaeus, 1758 Crotalophorus - Houttuyn, 1764 Caudisona - Laurenti, 1768 Crotalinus - Rafinesque, 1815 Crotalurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Crotulurus - Rafinesque, 1820 Uropsophus - Wagler, 1830 Urocrotalon - Fitzinger, 1843 Aploaspis - Cope, 1867 Aechmophrys - Coues In Wheeler, 1875 Haploaspis - Cope, 1883 Paracrotalus - Reuss, 1930[1] Common names: rattlesnakes. ...

Antivenom snakebite treatment must be matched as the type of envenomation that has occurred.

In the Americas, polyvalent antivenoms are available that are effective against the bites of most pit vipers.

These are not effective against coral snake envenomation, which requires a specific antivenom to their neurotoxic venom. Species Over 65, see article. ...

The situation is even more complex in countries like India, with its rich mix of vipers (family Viperidae) and highly neurotoxic cobras and kraits of the family Elapidae. Synonyms Viperae - Laurenti, 1768 Viperini - Oppel, 1811 Viperidae - Gray, 1825[1] The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from the viperines (subfamily Viperinae). ... Egyptian Cobra, Naga haje This article is about snakes. ... Species , Banded Krait A krait (Pronounced krIt) is a very deadly snake. ... The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of highly venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. ...

This article is based on the 1913 book The Snakes of Europe, by G. A. Boulenger, which is now in the public domain in the United States (and possibly elsewhere) because of its age. Because of its age, the text in this article should not been viewed as reflecting the current knowledge of snake venom. Year 1913 (MCMXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

External links

• UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-55 - Calculated orientations of snake venome toxins in the lipid bilayer
• UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families/superfamily-90 - Calculated orientations of snake venom phospholipases A2 and myotoxins in the lipid bilayer
• LD50's for most toxic venoms.
• Australian Venom Research Unit - a general source of information for venomous creatures in Australasia
• biomedcentral.com - Medicinal and ethnoveterinary remedies of hunters in Trinidad
• reptilis.net - How venom works
• Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A&M University-Kingsville - For over three decades, our mission has been to provide global research, training & resources that will lead to the discovery of medically important toxins found in snake venoms. We also provide snake venoms, venom fractions and tissuefor biomedical research.

Huhu A peripheral protein from the OPM database (P40phox PX domain of of NADPH oxidase). ... A peripheral protein from the OPM database (P40phox PX domain of of NADPH oxidase). ...