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Though the fantasy genre in its modern sense is less than two centuries old, its sources have a long and distinguished history. Elements of the supernatural and the fantastic were an element of literature from its beginning. Fantasy is a genre of art that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. ...

In The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, John Clute and John Grant separated the concept of fantasy as such from that of taproot texts, works that are sources for fantasy, but not themselves fantasy.^[1] Cover Art. ... John [Frederick] Clute is a Canadian born author and critic who lives in Britain. ...

Areas of interest

Ancient Near Eastern mythology

The Deluge tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh in Akkadian

The Epic of Gilgamesh was written over generations following the supposed reign of King Gilgamesh, and is seen as a mythologized version of his life. This figure is sometimes an influence and, more rarely, sometimes a figure in modern fantasy.^[2] Deluge Tablet (Babylonian, Gilgamesh) http://www. ... Deluge Tablet (Babylonian, Gilgamesh) http://www. ... The Deluge by Gustave Doré. The story of a Great Flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution is a widespread theme in Greek and many other cultural myths. ... The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Babylonia and is among the earliest known literary works. ... Akkadian (lišānum akkadītum) was a Semitic language (part of the greater Afro-Asiatic language family) spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, particularly by the Assyrians and Babylonians. ... The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Babylonia and is among the earliest known literary works. ...

Many have suggested that Egyptian mythology was regarded as mainly allegorical during at least part of its history.^{[citation needed]} The reason for this is that the gods and goddesses of Egyptian mythology were not seen as fixed figures, but as manifestations of a single divinity.^{[citation needed]} Tales of origins and other myths were therefore subject to change for the purposes of relating moral messages or discussing various aspects of the world's nature. At times gods and goddesses could even be deconstructed or combined with other deities toward such ends. Thus, some might argue that Egyptian mythology differs from modern fantasy fiction only in that its primary function was philosophical and religious in nature, rather than simple entertainment.^{[citation needed]} Egyptian mythology or Egyptian religion is the succession of tentative beliefs held by the people of Egypt for over three thousand years, prior to major exposure to Christianity and Islam. ...

Perhaps because of Tolkien's popularity, a little known religion exerts an important, although indirect influence on fantasy.^{[citation needed]} The ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism is characterised by far-reaching dualism and spiritual and material battles of the good spirit Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman. These are described in the Avesta texts, the earliest of which was the Gathas, composed by Zoroaster. Depictions of such wars proved irresistible to many modern fantasy authors.^{[citation needed]} Iran is one of the worlds oldest continuous major civilizations. ... Zoroastrianism (Avestan Daênâ Vañuhi the good religion)[1][2] is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). ... It has been suggested that Combative dualism be merged into this article or section. ... Ahura Mazda is the Avestan language name for an exalted divinity of ancient proto-Indo-Iranian religion that was subsequently declared by Zarathustra (Zoroaster) to be the one uncreated creator of all (God). ... Angra Mainyu or Ahriman was the evil spirit in the dualistic strain of Zoroastrianism. ... See Avesta Municipality for the Swedish town Yasna 28. ... The Gathas (Gāθās) are the most sacred of the texts of the Zoroastrian faith, and are traditionally believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

The Bible, which had a great and enduring impact on Western Culture and its later works of fiction, also influenced fantasy literature.^{[citation needed]} The influence tends to be hidden, however, since many authors are unwilling to risk controversy which can be caused by the use of Bible in fantasy literature.^{[citation needed]} This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ...

• Epic of Gilgamesh, by an unknown author (3rd millennium BCE)
• Enuma Elish (When on High), by an unknown author (18th century BCE)
• Gathas, by Zoroaster (10th century BCE)
• The Book of Genesis, attributed to Moses (440 BCE)

The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Babylonia and is among the earliest known literary works. ... The 3rd millennium BC spans the Early to Middle Bronze Age. ... Enûma Elish is the creation epic of Babylonian mythology. ... // Events 1787 - 1784 BC -- Amorite conquests of Uruk and Isin 1786 BC -- Egypt: Queen Sobekneferu died. ... The Gathas (Gāθās) are the most sacred of the texts of the Zoroastrian faith, and are traditionally believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) // Overview Events Partition of ancient Israel into the Kingdoms of Judah and Israel (c. ... Genesis (Greek: Γένεσις, having the meanings of birth, creation, cause, beginning, source and origin) is the first book of the Torah (five books of Moses) and hence the first book of the Tanakh, part of the Hebrew Bible; it is also the first book of the Christian Old Testament. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC - 440s BC - 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 390s BC Years: 445 BC 444 BC 443 BC 442 BC 441 BC - 440 BC - 439 BC 438 BC...

Indian mythology

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata

India has a long tradition of fantastical stories and characters. The Rig-Veda, the oldest text on Vedic mythology, was mostly religious in nature but had many elements found in modern fantasy fiction.^{[citation needed]} There have been modern works of fantasy fiction, such as RG Veda, that were influenced by Vedic mythology.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Kurukshetra. ... Image File history File links Kurukshetra. ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This page refers to the manga. ...

Hindu mythology was an evolution of the earlier Vedic mythology and had many more fantastical stories and characters, particularly in the Indian epics, such as the Mahabharata by Vyasa, and the Ramayana by Valmiki. Hinduism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... The ancient Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, laid the cornerstone for much of Hindu religion. ... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... Veda Vyasa(Contemporary painting) Vyāsa (Devanāgarī: व्यास) is a central and much revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. ... For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... Valmiki composes the Ramayana Maharishi Valmiki (Sanskrit: वाल्मिकी, vālmikī) is the author of the Hindu epic Ramayana. ...

The Ramayana was influential throughout the Far East, particularly in South East Asia where it became a national epic. The Ramayana also influenced Chinese fantasy, such as the character of Sun Wukong being influenced by Hanuman.^{[citation needed]} The far east as a cultural block includes East Asia, Southeast Asia, Northeast Asia and South Asia. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... This article or section is incomplete and may require expansion and/or cleanup. ... For the Tamil movie by same name see Anjaneya, Movie This article is about a Divine Entity in Hinduism. ...

The Mahabharata was one of the longest fantasy fiction ever written.^{[citation needed]} With its vast philosophical depth and sheer magnitude, the Mahabharata includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods and goddesses, philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy, self-fulfilling prophecies, supernatural abilities, and epic battles. The Naga race, a common element in modern fiction, were also first featured in the Mahabharata. Modern adaptations of the Mahabharata include an Indian TV series by B. R. Chopra and a European mini-series by Peter Brook.^{[citation needed]} This article is 58 kilobytes or more in size. ... // an egg broke and out came the planets thanks to gods pet hen The Rig Veda describes the origin of the universe as: Then was not non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. ... A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true. ... In modern fantasy fiction, members of a race with both snake and human characteristics (usually having only a human head, or a human torso with a snake tail instead of legs) are often called nagas. ... Mahabharat is a successful Indian television series based on the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata. ... Baldev Raj Chopra born April 14, 1914) is a director and Producer of Bollywood movies and Indian television sitcoms. ... Peter Stephen Paul Brook CH CBE (born 21 March 1925) is a highly influential British theatrical producer and director. ...

The Panchatantra (Fables of Bidpai) was influential throughout the Old World.^{[citation needed]} It used various animal fables and magical tales to illustrate the central Indian principles of political science through an inter-woven series of stories and stories within stories, which were sometimes three or four layers deep, and then unexpectedly snapping shut in irregular rhythms to sustain attention. The Hitopadesha was another famous collection of fantasy fables. The Panchatantra [1][2][3] (also spelled Pañcatantra, Sanskrit पञ्चतन्त्र Five Chapters) or Kelileh va Dimneh or Anvar-i-Suhayli [4][5] or The Lights of Canopus (in Persian)[6] or Kalilag and Damnag (in Syriac)[7] or Kalila and Dimna (also Kalilah and Dimnah, Arabic كليلة و دمنة Kalila wa Dimna)[8... The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans, Asians, and Africans before the voyages of Christopher Columbus; it includes Europe, Asia, and Africa (collectively known as Africa-Eurasia), plus surrounding islands. ... For a comparison of fable with other kinds of stories, see Myth, legend, fairy tale, and fable. ... Political science is the field of the social sciences concerning the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. ... Hitopadesha is a collection of Sanskrit fables in prose and verse; it is similar to, though distinct from, the Panchatantra. ...

The Baital Pachisi (Vikram and the Vampire) is a collection of various fantasy tales set within a frame story about an encounter between King Vikramāditya and a Vetala, one of the earliest mythical creatures resembling a vampire. According to Richard Francis Burton and Isabel Burton, the Baital Pachisi "culminated in the Arabian Nights" and it "inspired the Golden Ass of Apuleius, Boccacio's Decamerone, the Pentamerone, and all that class of facetious fictitious literature."^{[citation needed]} Baital Pachisi or Vetala Panchvimshati (Twenty five tales of Baital) is a legend from India. ... A frame story (also frame tale, frame narrative, etc. ... Vikramāditya (Sanskrit: विक्रमादित्य) is the name of a legendary king of Ujjain, India, famed for his wisdom, valour and magnanimity. ... 81. ... Vampires (or vampyres) are mythological or folkloric creatures believed to be the reanimated corpses of human beings who subsist on human and/or animal blood. ... Richard Burton, portrait by Frederic Leighton, National Portrait Gallery, London. ... Isabel Burton (born Isabella Arundell) (March 20, 1831 - March 21, 1896) was the wife of explorer, adventurer, and writer Sir Richard Francis Burton. ... Queen Scheherazade tells her stories to King Shahryar. ... The Metamorphoses of Lucius Apuleius, referred to as The Golden Ass (Asinus aureus) by Augustine, is the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. ... Lucius Apuleius (c. ... Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (June 16, 1313 – December 21, 1375) was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist in his own right and author of a number of notable works including On Famous Women, the Decameron and his poetry in the vernacular. ... Illustration from a copy of The Decameron, ca. ... Giambattista Basile (1566 or 1575–February 23, 1632) was an Italian poet, courtier, and fairy tale collector. ...

Other Indian fantasy works include the The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature, written in South India. One of these epics, Manimekalai, as well as earlier Indian literature such as such as Kālidāsa's poem Meghaduta, the dialogue of the Yakshaprasnah ("Questions of the Yaksha"), contain some of the earliest tales about fairies, known as Yaksha, who often had a dual personality. On the one hand, a Yaksha may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is a much darker version of the Yaksha, which is a kind of cannibalistic ogre, ghost or demon that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travelers, similar to the rakṣasas. The Yaksha are often featured in Japanese fantasy (transliterated as "Yasha" in Japanese) and as well as several Western fantasy works, such as The Last Vampire, where the original vampire's name is Yaksha. Various Hindu gods such as Shiva and Kali are also featured in various modern fantasy works.^{[citation needed]} Manimegalai, Seevaga Sindhamani, Valayaapathi, Kundalakesi and Silapadhigaaram constitute the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature. ... South India is a linguistic-cultural region of India that comprises the four Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of Pondicherry, whose inhabitants are collectively referred to as South Indians. ... Manimekalai, written by Seethalai Saathanar, is one of the masterpieces of Tamil literature and belongs to The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature. ... Kālidāsa (DevanāgarÄ«: कालिदास) was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru (Preceptor of All Poets) bearing testimony to his stature. ... MeghadÅ«ta (literally cloud messenger) is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa, considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. ... by Sophie Anderson For other uses, see Fairy (disambiguation). ... Greek scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 3rd century CE, Tokyo National Museum. ... A rakshasa (Sanskrit: रा॑क्षसः, ; alternately, raksasa or rakshas) is a demon or unrighteous spirit in Hinduism. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... “Nilakantha” redirects here. ... This article is about the Hindu goddess Kali. ...

• Rig-Veda (14th or 15th century BCE)
• Jaya, by Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Bharata, by Vaisampayana (6th or 7th century BCE)
• Mahabharata, by Ugrasrava Sauti (5th or 6th century BCE)
• Ramayana, by Valmiki (5th or 6th century BCE)
• Panchatantra, by Vishnu Sarma (3nd century BCE)
• Vikram and The Vampire (1st century BCE)
• Hitopadesha (1st century)
• The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature (2nd to 5th centuries):
  • Cilappatikaram, by Prince Ilango Adigal
  • Manimekalai, by Seethalai Saathanar
  • Civaka Cintamani, by Tirutakakatevar
  • Valayapati, by a Jaina Tamil poet
  • Kundalakesi, by a Buddhist Tamil poet

The Rigveda (Sanskrit: , a tatpurusha compound of praise, verse and knowledge) is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods. ... // Overview Events 1344 BCE – 1322 BCE -- Beginning of Hittite empire Rise of the Urnfield culture Significant persons Akhenaten, Pharaoh of Egypt Tutankhamun, Pharaoh of Egypt Suppiliulima, king of the Hittites Moses Inventions, discoveries, introductions Template:DecadesAndYearsBCE Category: ‪14th century BCE‬ ... // Overview Events 1504 BC – 1492 BC -- Egypt conquers Nubia and the Levant. ... Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa was the great sage who authored the great Hindu epic Mahabharata. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... Vaisampayana or VaiÅ›ampayana was a celebrated sage who was the original teacher of the Black Yajur-Veda. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra The (Devanagari: ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the . ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 5th century BC started on January 1, 500 BC and ended on December 31, 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series). ... Valmiki composes the Ramayana Maharishi Valmiki (Sanskrit: वाल्मिकी, vālmikÄ«) is the author of the Hindu epic Ramayana. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 5th century BC started on January 1, 500 BC and ended on December 31, 401 BC. // The Parthenon of Athens seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 6th century BC started on January 1, 600 BC and ended on December 31, 501 BC. // Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta The 5th and 6th centuries BC were a time of empires, but more importantly, a time... The Panchatantra [1][2][3] (also spelled Pañcatantra, Sanskrit पञ्चतन्त्र Five Chapters) or Kelileh va Dimneh or Anvar-i-Suhayli [4][5] or The Lights of Canopus (in Persian)[6] or Kalilag and Damnag (in Syriac)[7] or Kalila and Dimna (also Kalilah and Dimnah, Arabic كليلة Ùˆ دمنة Kalila wa Dimna)[8... Vishnu Sarma was the author of the anthropomorphic political treatise called Panchatantra. ... Baital Pachisi or Vetala Panchvimshati (Twenty five tales of Baital) is a legend from India. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... Hitopadesha is a collection of Sanskrit fables in prose and verse; it is similar to, though distinct from, the Panchatantra. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... Manimegalai, Seevaga Sindhamani, Valayaapathi, Kundalakesi and Silapadhigaaram constitute the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature. ... The 2nd century is the period from 101 - 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Europe in 450 The 5th century is the period from 401 - 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... Cilappatikaram (Tamil: சிலப்பதிகாரம் IPA tʃɪlÊŒppʌθɪkɑːɹʌm),[1] is one of the five great epics of ancient Tamil Literature. ... Ilango adigal is a great tamil poet, who was instrumental in the creation of silappathikaram, on of the five great epics. ... Manimekalai, written by Seethalai Saathanar, is one of the masterpieces of Tamil literature and belongs to The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature. ... Seevaga-chintamani (transliterated with innumerable variations) is a classical Tamil language epic poem. ... Tirutakakatevar was a Tamil poet who wrote Jivaka-chintamani, one of the five greatest epics of Tamil literature, (Manimegalai, Silapadhigaaram , Valayaapathi and Kundalakesi, along with Jivaka-chintamani, constitute the five great epics of Tamil literature). ... Jainism (pronounced in English as IPA ), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a dharmic religion and philosophy originating in Ancient India. ... Tamil literature is literature in the Tamil language which most prominently includes the contributions of the Tamil country (or Tamizhagam) history, a large part of which constitutes the modern state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala as well as some parts of Karnataka and Andra pradesh. ... Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion and a philosophy. ...

Greco-Roman mythology

Circe, by John William Waterhouse

Classical mythology is replete with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer.^[1] Image File history File links John_William_Waterhouse_-_Circe_(The_Sorceress). ... Image File history File links John_William_Waterhouse_-_Circe_(The_Sorceress). ... Image:Circe - Edward Burne-Jones - Project Gutenberg eText 13725. ... John William Waterhouse. ... Classical or Greco-Roman mythology usually refers to the mythology, and the associated polytheistic rituals and practices, of Classical Antiquity. ... Homer (Greek: , Hómēros) was an early Greek poet and aoidos (rhapsode) traditionally credited with the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey. ...

At least some ancient Greek authors were known to express open disbelief in the existence of many of the creatures that featured in Greek mythology, while some of the Greek philosophers apparently doubted the literal truthfulness of ancient Greek religion.^{[citation needed]} While it is probable that the majority of the ancient Greeks held a belief in the actuality of the fantastic, there existed amongst the ancient Greek literati people who viewed the factual accuracy of the mythology to be either secondary to or at least separate from the value and meaning of the myths themselves; thus, there was a sense of willing suspension of disbelief (as opposed to actual belief) in the fantastic.^{[citation needed]} Such suspension of disbelief was also necessary for appreciating many known original works, particularly dramatic presentations, in classical antiquity (see fourth wall).^{[citation needed]} Note: This article contains special characters. ... An intellectual is a person who uses his or her intellect to study, reflect, and speculate on a variety of different ideas. ... Suspension of disbelief refers to the willingness of a reader or viewer to accept the premises of a work of fiction, even if they are fantastic or impossible. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

While the degree to which Classical fiction resembles modern fantasy is debatable, it is significant that it is from this tradition that most of the conventions in the arts of western civilization ultimately derive.^{[citation needed]} Depending on one's interpretation, it could therefore be said that something resembling fantasy fiction, as we now know it, was fundamental to the development of western thinking and modern fantasy by extension.^{[citation needed]} This would seem to place the fantasy genre firmly within a long and distinguished tradition of story-telling, as many fans as well as a growing number of academics have suggested.^{[citation needed]}

The above mentioned works, although they included many fantastic elements, differ from modern fantasy as to their literary genre.{{fact} They were written in verse, and belong either to epic poetry or drama.^{[citation needed]} In that respect there is a greater similarity between modern fantasy and ancient novel. Works of Apuleius and Lucian of Samosata were created in the mature period of classical civilisation, which often resembled modernity, for example in its individualistic attitude to religion. A literary genre is one of the divisions of literature into genres according to particular criteria such as literary technique, tone, or content. ... The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... A novel (from French nouvelle Italian novella, new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative, typically in prose. ... Modernity is a term used to describe the condition of being modern. Since the term modern is used to describe a wide range of periods, modernity must be understood in its context. ...

• Odyssey, Homer (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Iliad, Homer (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Aeneid, Virgil (1st century CE)
• The Golden Ass, Lucius Apuleius (Date?)
• True History, Lucian of Samosata (Date?)

Odysseus and Nausicaä - by Charles Gleyre The Odyssey (Greek Οδύσσεια (Odússeia) ) is one of the two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to the poet Homer. ... Homer (Greek: , Hómēros) was an early Greek poet and aoidos (rhapsode) traditionally credited with the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... It has been suggested that Deception of Zeus be merged into this article or section. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 7th century BC started on January 1, 700 BC and ended on December 31, 601 BC. // Overview Events Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria who created the the first systematically collected library at Nineveh A 16th century depiction of the Hanging Gardens of... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... The Aeneid (IPA English pronunciation: ; in Latin Aeneis, pronounced — the title is Greek in form: genitive case Aeneidos): is a Latin epic written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between 29 and 19 BC) that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy where he... A bust of Virgil, from the entrance to his tomb in Naples, Italy. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... The Metamorphoses of Lucius Apuleius, which according to St. ... Lucius Apuleius (ca 123/5 CE - ca 180 CE), an utterly Romanized Berber who described himself as half-Numidian half-Gaetulian, is remembered most for his bawdy picaresque Latin novel the Metamorphoses, better known as The Golden Ass. ... By Lucian of Samosata-a tale of a group of adventurers who, while sailing through the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of Gibraltar), are lifted up by a giant waterspout and deposited on the Moon. ... Lucian of Samosata (c. ...

East Asian mythology

The four heroes of Journey to the West, from left to right: Sun Wukong, Xuánzàng, Zhu Wuneng, and Sha Wujing

Chinese mythology is a collection of cultural history, folktales, and religions that have been passed down in oral or written form. There are several aspects to Chinese mythology, including creation myths and legends and myths concerning the founding of Chinese culture and the Chinese state. Like many mythologies, some people believe it to be a factual recording of history. Many myths are better known in the US by their Japanese versions. Download high resolution version (1440x592, 240 KB)Photograph of painting depicting a scene from the Chinese classic Journey to the West. ... Download high resolution version (1440x592, 240 KB)Photograph of painting depicting a scene from the Chinese classic Journey to the West. ... The four heroes of the story, left to right: Sūn Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng. ... This article or section is incomplete and may require expansion and/or cleanup. ... A portrait of Xuanzang Xuanzang (Chinese: ; pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Hsüan-tsang; CantoneseIPA: jyn4tsɔŋ1; CantoneseJyutping: jyun4zong1) was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler and translator that brought up the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period. ... Zhu Bajie Zhu Bajie (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chu Pa-chieh), also named Zhu Wuneng (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Chu Wu-neng), is one of the three helpers of Xuanzang in the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West. ... Sha Wujing Sha Wujing (沙悟凈 WG: Sha Wu-ching) is one of the three helpers of Xuanzang in the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West. ... Creation beliefs and stories describe how the universe, the Earth, life, and/or humanity came into being. ... Japanese mythology is a very complex system of beliefs that embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as agriculture-based folk religion. ...

The most well known fantasy fiction from China was Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en, which was later influential in works of modern fantasy fiction.^{[citation needed]} One of its characters, Sun Wukong, better known in the West as Monkey or Son Goku, has become a cultural icon throughout the Far East, and is also well known in the West.^{[citation needed]} Other earlier examples of Chinese fantasy includes Shan Hai Jing.^{[citation needed]} The four heroes of the story, left to right: Sūn Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, Zhū Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng. ... Wu Chengen (Traditional Chinese: 吳承恩; Simplified Chinese: 吴承恩; pinyin: Wú Chéngēn) (1500? or 1506?-1582) , was a Chinese novelist and poet of the Ming Dynasty. ... This article or section is incomplete and may require expansion and/or cleanup. ... A modern image of the traditional Son Goku, the Monkey King. ... Shan Hai Jing (山海經,山海经) is an ancient Chinese book that contains many geographic and culture descriptions about the ancient world. ...

Japanese mythology is a complex system of beliefs. The Shinto pantheon alone boasts a collection of more than 8,000,000 kami (Japanese for "gods" or "spirits"). Due to the influence of the ancient Chinese civilization, much of Japanese mythology and religion originated from the mainland, though there are still many myths uniquely Japanese. It embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as agricultural-based folk beliefs. Shinto ) is the native religion of Japan and was once its state religion. ... A pantheon (Greek: παν, pan, all + θεός, theos, god), is a set of all the gods of a particular religion or mythology, such as the gods of Hinduism, Greek mythology, Norse mythology, and Egyptian mythology. ... “Megami” redirects here. ... Look up deity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus (breath). // The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath (compare spiritus asper), but also soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a PIE root *(s)peis- (to blow). In the Vulgate, the Latin word translates Greek (πνευμα), pneuma (Hebrew (רוח) ruah), as... Cities are a major hallmark of human civilization. ... // For the Derek Sherinian album, see Mythology (Derek Sherinian album). ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... Folk religion consists of beliefs, superstitions and cultural practices transmitted from generation to generation, in addition to the formally stated creeds and beliefs of a codified major religion. ...

The Japanese novel The Tale of Genji contains some of the earliest ghost stories, while Konjaku Monogatarishu covers various fantasy tales from India, China and Japan which depict encounters between human beings and the supernatural, such as oni and tengu. Other fantasy tales feature the Yasha (from Sanskrit "Yaksha"). These tales were influential in modern Japanese fantasy, as well as modern Western fantasy.^{[citation needed]} Ilustration of ch. ... A ghost story may be any piece of fiction, or drama, that includes a ghost, or simply takes as a premise the possibility of ghosts or the belief of some character(s) in them. ... Konjaku Monogatarishū (今昔物語集, kon present + jaku past + monogatari tale + shū collection) is a Japanese collection of over one thousand tales written during the late Heian Period (794-1192). ... A statue of an Oni wielding a tetsubo. ... Tengu and a Buddhist monk, by Kawanabe Kyōsai. ... Greek scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 3rd century CE, Tokyo National Museum. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is an old Indo-Aryan language from the Indian Subcontinent, the classical literary language of the Hindus of India[1], a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ...

• Shan Hai Jing (2nd century BCE)
• The Tale of Genji (11th century)
• Konjaku Monogatarishu (12th century)
• Otogizoshi (14th or 15th century)
• Journey to the West, by Wu Cheng'en (16th century)
• Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, by Pu Songling (17th century)
• Yotsuya Kaidan (19th century)

Shan Hai Jing (山海經,山海经) is an ancient Chinese book that contains many geographic and culture descriptions about the ancient world. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 2nd century BC started on January 1, 200 BC and ended on December 31, 101 BC. // Coin of Antiochus IV. Reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Ilustration of ch. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ... Konjaku Monogatarishū (今昔物語集, kon present + jaku past + monogatari tale + shū collection) is a Japanese collection of over one thousand tales written during the late Heian Period (794-1192). ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... Illustration from otogizōshi tale, published c. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... The four heroes of the story, left to right: SÅ«n Wùkōng, Xuánzàng, ZhÅ« Bājiè, and Shā Wùjìng. ... Wu Chengen (Traditional Chinese: 吳承恩; Simplified Chinese: 吴承恩; pinyin: Wú ChéngÄ“n) (1500? or 1506?-1582) , was a Chinese novelist and poet of the Ming Dynasty. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Liaozhai Zhiyi (traditional characters: 聊齋誌異; simplified characters: 聊斋志异; Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio or Strange Tales of Liaozhai) is a collection of 431 supernatural tales written by Pu Songling (蒲松齡) during the early Qing Dynasty. ... Pu Songling (Chinese: 蒲松齡; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Pu Sung-ling) (5 June 1640 - 25 February 1715) was an ethnic Mongol Chinese writer. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... Yotsuya Kaidan (四つ谷怪談) is a Japanese ghost story. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Medieval European myths and legends

Medieval European sources of fantasy occurred primarily in epic poetry and in the Fornaldarsagas, Norse and Icelandic sagas, both of which are based on ancient oral tradition. The influence of these works on the German Romantics, William Morris, and J. R. R. Tolkien means that their influence on later fantasy has been large.^[3] The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... A Fornaldarsaga deals with matter that took place in Scandinavia (and a few distant places) before the colonization of Iceland. ... Excerpt Njåls saga in the Möðruvallabók (AM 132 folio 13r) circia 1350. ... Look up saga in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next in a civilization without a writing system. ... William Morris, socialist and innovator in the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris, publisher Davids Charge to Solomon (1882), a stained-glass window by Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris in Trinity Church, Boston, Massachusetts. ... John Ronald Reuel Tolkien CBE (January 3, 1892 – September 2, 1973) was an English philologist, writer and university professor who is best known as the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. ...

Thor's battle against the giants, by Marten Eskil Winge, 1872

The story of Beowulf was of particular interest, as the events of the story take place roughly four hundred years before the writing of the text. The characters in the story are unalloyed Pagans, whereas the author(s) is clearly Christian. A story about a past society in which a brave hero vanquishes dangerous monsters, placed within the framework of (what was then) contemporary society's beliefs and ideals, is a formula that has become an instant indicator of fantasy fiction in the years since. Though the story of Beowulf was by no means the first to do this, many of its presumably more original elements have also had huge impacts on the fantasy genre. Grendel's attacks on the Heorot, for example, established the formula of later horror stories, and this portion of the tale can be seen as precursory to dark fantasy. Grendel was also the prototypical orc, inspiring J. R. R. Tolkien's race of the same name and the majority of subsequent incarnations. Thors battle against the giants (1872), by Mårten Eskil Winge. ... Thors battle against the giants (1872), by Mårten Eskil Winge. ... Heathen redirects here. ... Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (see Hebrews 8:6). ... Grendel is one of three antagonists, along with Grendels mother and the dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf (c. ... Heorot is the stronghold of king Hrothgar in the epic poem Beowulf. ... Horror fiction is, broadly, fiction in any medium intended to scare, unsettle, or horrify the reader. ... Dark fantasy has yet to be solidly connected to its own particular subgenre of Fantasy. ... Orkish redirects here. ... Orcs in Moria, from the 1978 animated film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings. ...

Beowulf was part of the Germanic legends, most prominently preserved in the Fornaldarsagas, literally tales of times past, or Legendary sagas. They were Norse sagas which unlike the Icelandic sagas take place before the colonization of Iceland, often based on older norse poems, such as those found in the Norse epic poem, the Elder Edda, although most of these poems have now been lost. There are however, some exceptions, such as Yngvars saga víðförla, which takes place in the 11th century. The first page of Beowulf This article is about the epic poem. ... A Fornaldarsaga deals with matter that took place in Scandinavia (and a few distant places) before the colonization of Iceland. ... Excerpt NjÃ¥ls saga in the Möðruvallabók (AM 132 folio 13r) circia 1350. ... The Norse sagas or Viking sagas (Icelandic: Íslendingasögur), are stories about ancient Scandinavian and Germanic history, about early Viking voyages, about migration to Iceland, and of feuds between Icelandic families. ... In mathematics, see epic morphism. ... The Poetic Edda or Elder Edda is a term applied to two things. ... Ingvar the Far-Travelled was the leader of the Swedish Ingvar expedition, which was an unsuccessful Swedish Viking attack against Persia, in 1036-1041. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century was that century which lasted from 1001 to 1100. ...

The setting is Scandinavia, but occasionally it moves temporarily to more distant and exotic locations. There are also very often mythological elements, such as gods, dwarves, elves, dragons, giants and magic swords. The heroes often embark on dangerous quests where they fight the forces of evil, dragons, witchkings, barrow-wights, and rescue fair maidens. Scandinavia is a historical and geographical region centered on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe and includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. ... Norse gods Divided between the Æsir and the Vanir, and sometimes including Jotun, the dividing line between these groups is less than clear. ... The Norse dwarves or Duergar (ON Dvergar) are highly significant entities within Norse mythology. ... A small forest elf (älva) rescuing an egg, from Solägget (1932), by Elsa Beskow An elf is a mythical creature of Germanic mythology and Germanic paganism which still survives in northern European folklore. ... Saint George versus the dragon, Gustave Moreau, c. ... The giants Fafner and Fasolt seize Freyja in Arthur Rackhams illustration to Richard Wagners version of the Norse myths. ... The term magic sword refers to any kind of mythological or fictional sword imbued with magical power to increase its strength or grant it other supernatural qualities. ...

Fornalder (times past), painting by Peter Nicolai Arbo

Many or most of the sagas are based on distant historic events and this is evident in cases where there are corroborating sources, such as Göngu-Hrólfs saga, Ragnars saga loðbrókar, Yngvars saga víðförla and Völsunga saga. In the case of Hervarar saga the names in the Gothic setting indicate a historic basis, and the latter parts of the saga are still used as a historic source for Swedish history. They often contain very old Germanic matter, such as the Hervarar saga and the Völsunga saga which contains poetry about Sigurd that did not find its way into the Poetic Edda and which would otherwise have been lost. Other sagas deal with heroes such as Ragnar Lodbrok, Starkad, Orvar-Odd, Hagbard and Signy. The Völsunga saga, the Hervarar saga, and Hrólfs saga kraka, among others are believed to be based on historical events during the migration of the Huns and Germanic tribes at the time of the fall of the Roman Empire, based on similarities to historical documents and oral tradition from other parts of Europe, such as the Nibelungenlied and Beowulf. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1252x756, 297 KB)Painting by Norwegian artist Peter Nicolai Arbo (1831-1892). ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1252x756, 297 KB)Painting by Norwegian artist Peter Nicolai Arbo (1831-1892). ... Peter Nicolai Arbo (1831–1892) was a Norwegian painter, who specialized in painting historical motifs and images from Norse mythology. ... Göngu-Hrólfs saga is a legendary saga about Rollo, who is presented as a Norwegian viking. ... Aella murdering Ragnar Lodbrok Ragnar Lodbrok (Ragnar Hairy-Breeks, Old Norse: Ragnarr Loðbrók) Swedish king, ruled the early kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark some time in the 8th or 9th century. ... Ingvar the Far-Travelled was the leader of the Swedish Ingvar expedition, which was an unsuccessful Swedish Viking attack against Persia, in 1036-1041. ... The Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts 1) how Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the dragon heart, from Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, who is Fafnirs brother. ... Hervarar saga ok Heidhreks is a fornaldarsaga from the 13th century using material from an older saga. ... Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche, is a highly romanticized portrait of the Goths as cavalrymen. ... Hervarar saga ok Heidhreks is a fornaldarsaga from the 13th century using material from an older saga. ... The Ramsund carving depicting the Saga of the Völsungs The Volsunga saga is a late 13th century Icelandic prose rendition of the story of Sigurd and Brynhild, and the destruction of the Burgundians. ... Sigurd sculpture in Bremen Sigurd (Old Norse: Sigurðr, German: Siegfried) was a legendary hero of Norse mythology, as well as the central character in the Völsunga saga. ... The Poetic Edda is a collection of Old Norse poems from the Icelandic mediaeval manuscript Codex Regius. ... Aella murdering Ragnar Lodbrok Ragnar Lodbrok (Ragnar Hairy-Breeks, Old Norse: Ragnarr Loðbrók) Swedish king, ruled the early kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark some time in the 8th or 9th century. ... Starkad, Starkotter, Starkodder, Starkadhr (ice. ... Orvar-Odd (i. ... Signhild Hagbard and Signy (Signe) (the Viking Age) or Habor and Sign(h)ild (the Middle Ages and later) were a pair of lovers in Scandinavian mythology and folklore whose legend was widely popular. ... Hrólf Kraki (Old Norse), Rolf Kraki or Rolf Krake was a legendary king at Lejre on the isle of Zealand, Denmark, described in several old sagas and other documents such as the Leire chronicle and Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus. ... The Huns were a confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads. ... The term Germanic tribes (or Teutonic tribes) applies to the ancient Germanic peoples of Europe. ... Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, c. ...

The starting point of the fornaldarsagas' influence on the creation of the Fantasy genre is the publication, in 1825, of the most famous Swedish literary work Frithjof's saga, which was based on the Friðþjófs saga ins frœkna, and it became an instant success in England and Germany. It is said to have been translated twenty-two times into English, twenty times into German, and once at least into every European language, including modern Icelandic in 1866. Their influence on authors, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, William Morris and Poul Anderson and on the subsequent modern fantasy genre is considerable, and can perhaps not be overstated. Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway 1825 (MDCCCXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Ingeborg, by Peter Nicolai Arbo Friðþjófs saga hins frÅ“kna is a legendary saga from Iceland which in its present form is from ca 1300. ... Ingeborg, by Peter Nicolai Arbo Friðþjófs saga hins frÅ“kna is a legendary saga from Iceland which in its present form is from ca 1300. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: God Save the King/Queen Capital London (de facto) Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2006 est. ... John Ronald Reuel Tolkien CBE (January 3, 1892 – September 2, 1973) was an English philologist, writer and university professor who is best known as the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. ... William Morris, socialist and innovator in the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris, publisher Davids Charge to Solomon (1882), a stained-glass window by Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris in Trinity Church, Boston, Massachusetts. ... Poul Anderson portrayed on the cover of a special edition of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction; painting by Kelly Freas. ...

The above-mentioned tales (with the exception of a late kind of sagas called lygisogur, "lying sagas") can be called fantasy only from the modern point of view. For their authors, they were more or less factual and historic; if not outright true, at least possible and probable.

Also noteworthy are the German epic, the Nibelungenlied and the Finnish epic, the Kalevala. The former, based on the same ancient legends as the Volsunga saga and many poems of the Elder Edda, inspired Wagner's Der Ring Des Nibelungen, which can be considered fantasy in its own right. The latter, although not published until the 19th century, is compiled from oral tradition dating back to this period, and perhaps even earlier, is also considered a source of inspiration for Tolkien. Finally, the Welsh epic the Mabinogion and the Irish epic the Tain can be considered fantasy as they relate stories involving mythical creatures and a magical otherworld. The Nibelungenlied is an epic poem in Middle High German. ... The Kalevala is an epic poem which Elias Lönnrot compiled from Finnish folk lore in the 19th century. ... The Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts 1) how Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the dragon heart, from Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, who is Fafnirs brother. ... The Poetic Edda or Elder Edda is a term applied to two things. ... Wilhelm Richard Wagner (May 22, 1813 – February 13, 1883) was an influential German composer, conductor, music theorist, and essayist, primarily known for his operas (or music dramas as he later came to call them). ... This article is about the series of operas; for the film, see Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King. ... This article is about the country. ... The Two Kings (sculptor Ivor Robert-Jones, 1984) near Harlech Castle, Wales. ... The Tain is an EP by The Decemberists released in 2005 by Acuarela Discos. ... For Irish Mythology, see Other World. ...

• Beowulf, Anonymous (1000)
• Poetic Edda, Anonymous
• Volsunga saga, Anonymous
• Nibelungenlied, Anonymous
• Hervarar saga, Anonymous
• Kalevala, Elias Lonnrot
• Mabinogion, Anonymous

The first page of Beowulf This article is about the epic poem. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Europe in 1000 The year 1000 of the Gregorian Calendar was the last year of the 10th century as well as the last year of the first millennium. ... The Poetic Edda is a collection of Old Norse poems from the Icelandic mediaeval manuscript Codex Regius. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts 1) how Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the dragon heart, from Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, who is Fafnirs brother. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Nibelungenlied is an epic poem in Middle High German. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hervarar saga ok Heidhreks is a fornaldarsaga from the 13th century using material from an older saga. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Kalevala is an epic poem which Elias Lönnrot compiled from Finnish folk lore in the 19th century. ... Elias Lönnrot (April 9, 1802 - March 19, 1884) was a Finland-Swedish philologist and collector of traditional Finnish oral poetry. ... The Mabinogion is a collection of prose stories from medieval Welsh manuscripts. ... Look up anonymous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

References