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Encyclopedia > Southeast Asian cinema
Southeast Asian cinema

Southeast Asian cinema refers to the film industry and films produced in, and/or by natives of, Southeast Asia. By definition, it describes any films produced in Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Cinema in Cambodia started in the 1950s, and by the 1960s the countrys film industry was experiencing a golden age, with many classic films being made and movie theaters throughout the country. ... The cinema of Indonesia has a long history but at present is a small, struggling industry. ... The Malaysian cinema experience began in 1933 with the screening of Laila Majnun, a well-known Sanskrit play of two ill-fated lovers. ... The cinema of the Philippines has a history that can be traced back to the early days of filmmaking in 1897, when a theater owner named Pertierra screened imported moving pictures. ... Despite having a flourishing Chinese and Malay film industry in the 1950s and 1960s, Singapores film industry declined after independence in 1965[1], with the government being more concerned with the bread-and-butter issues of economic nation-building. ... The cinema of Thailand has a history that stretches back to early days of filmmaking, when King Chulalongkorns 1897 visit to Berne, Switzerland was recorded by Francois-Henri Lavancy-Clarke. ... The cinema of Vietnam has a history that goes back to the 1920s and has largedly been shaped by wars that have been fought in the country from the 1940s to the 1970s. ... Cinema admissions in 1995 The film industry consists of the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking: i. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ...


Southeast Asian cinema is a sub-section of continental Asian cinema, which in turn comes under the umbrella term of World cinema, a term used in some anglophone countries to describe any foreign language films. Asian cinema refers to the film industries and films produced in the continent of Asia. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A foreign film is a film from a foreign country. ...

The far east as a cultural block includes East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
The far east as a cultural block includes East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

Contents

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 352 pixelsFull resolution (1427 × 628 pixel, file size: 31 KB, MIME type: image/png) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 352 pixelsFull resolution (1427 × 628 pixel, file size: 31 KB, MIME type: image/png) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... East Asia Geographic East Asia. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ...

Key figures

China

Main article: Cinema of China
Main article: Cinema of Hong Kong

The history of Chinese language cinema has three separate threads of development: Cinema of Hong Kong, Cinema of China, and Cinema of Taiwan. ... The cinema of Hong Kong is one of the three major threads in the history of Chinese language cinema, alongside the cinema of China, and the cinema of Taiwan. ...

Burma

Main article: Cinema of Burma
  • Kyi Soe TunBurma's most prominent director. His films include Upstream and Blood.

Kyi Soe Tun is a Burmese film director, producer and screenwriter who has made 34 movies in his 25-year career. ...

Cambodia

Main article: Cinema of Cambodia

Cinema in Cambodia started in the 1950s, and by the 1960s the countrys film industry was experiencing a golden age, with many classic films being made and movie theaters throughout the country. ... This article is about the actor and physician. ... Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian Bob Hope received two honorary Oscars for his contributions to cinema. ... The Killing Fields (1984) is an award-winning dramatic British film based on the experiences of the journalists Dith Pran, who survived the Khmer Rouge regime, Sydney Schanberg, and Jon Swain. ... Rithy Panh (born April 18, 1964 in Phnom Penh) is a Cambodian documentary film director and screenwriter. ...

Indonesia

Main article: Cinema of Indonesia

The cinema of Indonesia has a long history but at present is a small, struggling industry. ... Herlina Christine Natalia Hakim or known by the popular name Christine Hakim (born at Kuala Tungkal, Jambi, 25 Desember 1956 is one of the most well known actresses in Indonesia. ... Whispering Sands (Pasir Berbisik) is a 2001 film Indonesian drama film directed by Nan Triveni Achnas and starring Christine Hakim and Dian Sastrowardoyo as a mother and her teenage daughter who are refugees making their way across endless sand dunes. ... Diandra Paramitha Sastrowardoyo (born March 16, 1982 in Jakarta, Indonesia) -- more popularly known as Dian Sastro or Dian Sastrowardoyo -- is an Indonesian model and actress. ... Joko Anwar was born on January 3rd, 1976, and initially known as a film critic and contributing writer for The Jakarta Post. ... Riri Riza (b. ... Gie is a 2005 biographical film directed by Riri Riza. ... Gie is a 2005 biographical film directed by Riri Riza. ...

Laos

  • Som Ock Southiponh – Independent director, producer and screenwriter (Red Lotus).

Malaysia

Main article: Cinema of Malaysia

The Malaysian cinema experience began in 1933 with the screening of Laila Majnun, a well-known Sanskrit play of two ill-fated lovers. ... P. Ramlee Tan Sri P. Ramlee (22 March 1929–29 May 1973) was a Malaysian film actor, director and songwriter. ... Introduction Assoc. ... Tsai Ming-liang (蔡明亮, pinyin: Cài Míngliàng) (born in 1957 in Kuching, Malaysia) is one of the most celebrated Second New Wave film directors of Taiwanese Cinema, along with such contemporaries as Hou Hsiao-Hsien and Edward Yang. ... Yasmin Ahmad is a film director and writer from Malaysia. ... Amir Muhammad is a writer and independent filmmaker based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ... JAMES LEE, born LEE Thim Heng, 1973 in Ipoh, Malaysia. ... A Malaysian Filmmaker. ...

Philippines

MAJOR FILM ACTORS and ACTRESSES (aka Biggest Stars of All Time) The cinema of the Philippines has a history that can be traced back to the early days of filmmaking in 1897, when a theater owner named Pertierra screened imported moving pictures. ...

  • Nora Aunor - the Philippines' Superstar and one of the biggest box-office actresses and singers of all-time. During the height of her career in the 70s, she raised Philippine music sales by up to 135%. Her rivalry with movie queen Vilma Santos established the longest running and fiercest rivalry in Filipino show business history. Also widely and arguably considered as the Philippines' greatest thespian, she had won the FAMAS Hall of Fame for winning the Philippines' Oscars, the FAMAS Award five times for Best Actress and the Gawad Urian (critics' award) six times, as well as three international awards which includes the Brussels International Film Festival Award for Best Actress. She usually plays downgraded Filipino women of virtue in her films such as Himala (1982), Ina Ka ng Anak Mo (1979), Minsa'y Isang Gamugamo (1976), The Flor Contemplation Story (1995) and Bakit May Kahapon Pa (1996), which were hit to the "bakya" (masses) crowd.
  • Claudine Barretto - the younger sister of 1990s sex siren Gretchen Barretto, Claudine started as a child star who was groomed as a leading lady from her teens. Starting in comedy shows such as "Ang TV" and "Home Along da Riles," Barretto became Star Cinema's biggest box-office draws when she began taking leading lady roles, most notable with Aga Muhlach in Kailangan Kita (2002) and with Piolo Pascual in Milan (2004). She is a FAMAS Award-winning actress.
  • Nida Blanca - the first winner of the FAMAS Award for Best Supporting Actress, the biggest star of LVN Pictures in the 1950s and 1960s was the other half of the most popular loveteam of all time in Philippine history, the Nida Blanca-Nestor de Villa song-and-dance love team. Their movies made gold for the biggest studio of the 1950s, LVN Pictures. In fact, their movie, Ibong Adarna (1955), was the first to gross one million pesos (P 50 million in 2008 pesos). When LVN closed shop, Nida moved on from romantic and comedic roles to heavier dramatic leading and supporting roles from which she got the bulk of her total of 14 awards, including 4 FAMAS Awards.
  • Sharon Cuneta - the Philippines' Megastar and one of the biggest box-office actresses of all-time, the former pioneer of the so-called Manila Sound was the Philippines' answer to Cinderella with her rags-to-riches roles in her early films. Her singing career was also one of the most successful in the Philippines. Widely known for her role as a stepmother in the movie Madrasta, which earned her all of the Best Actress awards in the Philippines in 1997 and has won two FAMAS Awards, Cuneta is more famous now as a television talk-show host. Nevertheless, she still commands one of the highest talent fees in Philippine show business.
  • Rogelio de la Rosa - the original King of Philippine Movies, de la Rosa became the first Filipino movie star to campaign for vice-presidency. His career goes back into the pre-war years and continued to flourish up until the 1950s, after which he became involved in politics. He is a FAMAS Award-winning actor.
  • Christopher de Leon - the Philippines' Drama King, the love interest of Vilma Santos in 24 films and the former husband of Nora Aunor has etched his mark in Philippine cinema with his forceful and sensitive portrayal of the Filipino working-class man. His great dramatic prowess made him the choice leading man of the Philippine movie queens. He also won the FAMAS Hall of Fame.
  • Dolphy - the Philippines' King of Comedy started his performing stints at the now defunct Manila Opera House with the great stage stars of the Philippines. Dolphy is better-known for his portrayal of homosexuals on film, of which he alone made the Filipino homosexual a comical character of great value and virtue, though he was a ladykiller in real-life ironically. Today, with a career spannign from the 1950's up until today, he and movie queen Gloria Romero remains the only links of Philippine moviegoers to the Golden Age of Philippine Cinema.
  • Joseph Estrada - the Filipino movie star who is well-known internationally as the deposed 13th President of the Philippines, he is Fernando Poe, Jr.' serious rival to the throne of King of Philippine Cinema. Another defender of the masses, which won him five FAMAS Awards and the Hall of Fame, he used this to gauge his entry into polotics in 1969 as mayor of the Manila suburb San Juan. He slowly rose to power as a Senator, Vice President and finally President. He was deposed in 2001 after an alleged payola scam involving the illegal numbers game "jueteng".
  • Eddie Garcia - forever etched in Philippine cinema history as the suave villain and winner of 16 FAMAS Awards and three FAMAS Hall of Fames, Garcia, like Solis, has adapted his career with the changing times. In the 1950s and 1960s, he usually played the mestizo villains who terrorized Lolita Rodriguez, Rita Gomez or Gloria Romero in their movies. When bomba or sexy films became a hit in the 1970s, he became a great sex comedy actor. In the 1990s, when male leads were getting on the action star trend, he became one at the age of seventy. He is also a noted director in the Philippines who made considerable amount of money for Viva Films in films that usually starred Vilma Santos. He is a FAMAS Hall fo Fame winner in Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor and Best Director categories.
  • Rita Gomez - one of the drama queens of Philippine cinema's Golden Age, Gomez has taken a gamut of roles from a transsexual to a saint to a troubled movie star. Her competence as a movie actress is well established and her performances generally masterful, controlled and well-portrayed. She won the FAMAS Award for Best Actress twice.
  • Aga Muhlach - Amalia Fuentes' nephew stepped out of the shadows to become Christopher de Leon's great threat to leading man supremacy. Initially making his mark in the cult youth-oriented film Bagets (1984), Muhlach graduated to meatier roles as a confused and rebellious teenager in Miguelito: Batang Rebelde (1985) and Napakasakit Kuya Eddie (1986), of which he won his first of three Gawad Urians. He won the FAMAS Award for Best Actor in the Vilma Santos starrer Sinungaling Mong Puso (1992). Today, he is one of the most sought after leading men in the industry.
  • Fernando Poe, Jr. - the King of Philippine cinema who is mostly known for his action movie roles, Poe became a star due to the Filipino's innate fancy with saviors. Frequently cast as the defender of the masses, Poe has built up a mythical image as the Filipino alpha male who never dies in the end of the film. Poe has carved himself a niche in the industry by winning the FAMAS Hall of Fame for Best Actor, directing and producing his own films. From his rise to stardom in 1958 to his death in 2004, no one and probably no one will, dethroned him as the King.
  • Piolo Pascual - the 2000s' biggest male star, his box-office mettle and his critically-acclaimed talent in portraying men with special roles, Pascual is hailed as the new Drama King of Philippine cinema. He had won all Best Supporting actor awards in 2002 for his portrayal as Vilma Santos' activist son in Dekada '70.
  • Lolita Rodriguez - one of the undisputed three drama queens of the Golden Age of Philippine cinema, Lolita Rodriguez is better-known for her dramatic prowess, which she used to full hilt with films such as Gilda (1955) and Tinimbang Ka Ngunit Kulang (1974), where she both won Best Actress FAMAS Awards. She is widely considered as one of the Best Actresses of All Time in the Philippines.
  • Gloria Romero - Sampaguita Pictures' biggest and daintiest star, she was touted by her mother studio as the "Sampaguita Pictures Star with the Humblest Face." More well-known as a barrio lass in her film roles, she won the only FAMAS Award awarded to an actress for a comedic role in 1954 for Dalagang Ilocana. To a degree a rival of Nida Blanca, she tried to equal the Nida Nestor loveteam with the Gloria Romero-Luis Gonzales loveteam but did not succeed to upstage Nida and Nestor because Nida and Nestor knew how to sing and dance, two things that Gloria and Luis cannot do as proficiently as Nida and Nestor. When Sampaguita Pictures slowed down in making films, Gloria followed Nida's career path and went on to win the bulk of her acting awards in her supporting roles in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. She amassed three FAMAS Awards and two Gawad Urians. She won the latter in her seventies.
  • Leopoldo Salcedo - the man who singlehandedly broke the mold of Filipino movie stardom. Frequently cited as the first Filipino male star with drak-skinned features, Salcedo starred in the silent films way back in the 1920s an continued his career up until the 1980s. He is most widely known in his FAMAS Award-winning role in The Moises Padilla Story (1961). He won a second FAMAS for Ganito Kami Noon, Paano Kayo Ngayon (1976).
  • Judy Ann Santos - the Young Superstar, Judy Ann Santos is currently running neck-to-neck with Claudine Barretto as the Queen of Philippine teledramas. Starting as a child star, Santos has gained wide acclaim and following with her rags-to-riches role in the teledrama "Mara Clara". She then graduated to movie star status, peaking with her co-starring with Fernando Poe, Jr. in Isusumbong Kita sa Tatay Ko (1997), which is the first Filipino film to gross one hundred million pesos. She is a FAMAS Award-winning actress.
  • Vilma Santos - the Philippines' Star for All Seasons and Superstar Nora Aunor's great rival for box-office supremacy in the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s, Santos has her own share of multiple awards for her equally glittering and masterful performances. Another winner of the FAMAS Hall of Fame and 8 Gawad Urians, Santos has done every role imaginable, from an activist nun (Sister Stella L.) to a rich girl who fell in love with a rebel (Pagputi ng Uwak, Pag-Itim ng Tagak), from an adulteress with a heart (Relasyon) to a maimed housewife under the horrors of Martial Law (Dekada '70), she would be forever etched in cinema history as the first to win a Grand Slam (winning all of the Best Actress awards in the Philippines) in 1982 for Relasyon. Santos has edged her way to become Philippine cinema's longest box-office queen and enduring movie queen. An institution of film, Santos now serves as Governor of Batangas, a Philippine province south of Manila.
  • Charito Solis - the rival of Lolita Rodriguez to drama queen supremacy, she was the first actress to win the FAMAS Hall of Fame for Best Actress. Charito Solis is LVN Pictures' answer to Sampaguita Pictures' Lolita Rodriguez and Rita Gomez. Charito Solis is well-known as the "Enduring Star," having adapted to the trends of Pilippine cinema over the years. During her big stardom in the 1950s and the 1960s, she starred as the leading lady of LVN Pictures and was also a box-office draw. Taking unconventional roles such as her FAMAS Award-winning role as a mountain maiden in Igorota (1968), she risked her on-screen persona as a repressed maiden to a bold and daring woman in the 1970s, when sexy or bomba films prevailed the screens in movies like Walang Katapusang Tag-Araw (1978) and Mga Uhaw na Bulaklak (1976). Understanding that her young star days are over, she moved smoothly to major matronly supporting roles in the 1980s and the 1990s with great success and still commanding top-billing status.
  • Maricel Soriano - the Philippines' Diamond Star, she is the only one of the drama queens who has gained great critical acclaim, awards and box-office supremacy with both drama and comedy. Launched as a teenage star by movie mogul Lily Monteverde, Soriano graduated to dramatic, award-winning roles in Kaya Kong Abutin ang Langit (1984), Hinugot sa Langit (1986), Ikaw Pa Lang ang Minahal (1992) and Dahas (1995). Of the box-office queens still working today, she is one of the most in-demand and highest paid.

The FAMAS Award of Merit, arguably the most coveted and prestigious motion picture prize of the country The Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences Awards also known as FAMAS Awards is the awards of the Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences, an award-giving body for film composed...

Singapore

Main article: Cinema of Singapore

Despite having a flourishing Chinese and Malay film industry in the 1950s and 1960s, Singapores film industry declined after independence in 1965[1], with the government being more concerned with the bread-and-butter issues of economic nation-building. ... Eric Khoo // Eric Khoo Eric Khoo was born in 1965 in Singapore and was introduced to the world of cinema at a very early age. ... For the Beach Boys song, see Be With Me (song) Be with Me is a 2005 film directed by Eric Khoo. ... I Not Stupid, a successful film by Jack Neo Jack Neo (梁智强; pinyin: Liáng Zhìqiáng) is a Singaporean actor, host and film-maker. ... I Not Stupid (Chinese: ; pinyin: xiǎohái bù bèn) is a film by Jack Neo, among its themes are issues facing Singapore, such as the problems caused by educational streaming or nanny state government policy as well as the social values of Singapore, including the highly competitive kiasu... Royston Tan is a young Singaporean film-maker. ... 15: The Movie (2003) is a Singaporean film by acclaimed film maker, Royston Tan. ... 881 is a movie written and directed by Royston Tan about the Singapore Getai scene. ...

Thailand

Main article: Cinema of Thailand

Italic text The cinema of Thailand has a history that stretches back to early days of filmmaking, when King Chulalongkorns 1897 visit to Berne, Switzerland was recorded by Francois-Henri Lavancy-Clarke. ... Apichatpong Weerasethakul (Thai อภิชาติพงศ์ วีระเศรษฐกุล, born July 16, 1970 in Bangkok, Thailand) is a Thai film director. ... The Cannes Film Festival (French: le Festival de Cannes), founded in 1939, is one of the worlds oldest, most influential and prestigious film festivals. ... Blissfully Yours (Thai: สุดเสน่หา or Sud sanaeha) is a 2002 Thai romance film directed by Apichatpong Weerasethakul. ... Tropical Malady (Thai: สัตว์ประหลาด or Sud pralad) is a 2004 Thai romance and psychological drama film directed by Apichatpong Weerasethakul and produced by Fabrica. ... Chatrichalerm Yukol on the set of The Legend of Suriyothai Prince Chatrichalerm Yukol (Thai หม่อมเจ้า ชาตรีเฉลิมยุคล, born November 29, 1942) is a Thai film director and screen writer. ... The Legend of Suriyothai is a Thai film directed by Prince Chatri Chalerm Yukol of the Thai Royal Family. ... This article is about a 2007 Thai historical drama film. ... Nonzee Nimibutr (Thai นนทรีย์ นิมิบุตร, born 1962 in Nonthaburi, Thailand) is a Thai film director, film producer and screenwriter. ... Nang nak is a romantic tragic and horror film produced by Nonzee Nimibutr in 1999 through Buddy Film and Video Production Co. ... Jan Dara (Thai: ) is a 2001 Thai erotic-period-drama film directed and co-written by Nonzee Nimibutr and co-starring Hong Kong actress Christy Chung. ... The Pang Brothers are Danny and Oxide Pang, twin-brother filmmakers born in 1965 in Hong Kong. ... Bangkok Dangerous is a 1999 crime film written and directed by the Pang Brothers. ... The Eye also known as Seeing Ghosts (Traditional Chinese: 見鬼; Simplified Chinese: 见鬼; pinyin: Jiàn Guǐ; yale: Gin3 Gwai2) is an Asian horror film directed by The Pang Brothers, Danny Pang and Oxide Pang. ... Thai director Pen-Ek Ratanaruang, working on the set of his 2003 film, Last Life in the Universe. ... Last Life in the Universe (Thai title: เรื่องรัก น้อยนิด มหาศาล, Ruang rak noi nid mahasan) is a 2003 Thai film directed by Pen-Ek Ratanaruang. ... Invisible Waves is a 2006 crime film by Thai director Pen-Ek Ratanaruang, with screenplay by Prabda Yoon, cinematography by Christopher Doyle, and starring Tadanobu Asano - all people that Pen-Ek had worked with on his previous film, Last Life in the Universe. ... Panom Yeerum (Thai: ; Khmer: ចាភ្ំ យីរុាំ; IPA: ) born on February 5, 1976 in Surin Province, Thailand, better known in the West as Tony Jaa and in Thailand as Jaa Panom, is a Thai martial art film actor, choreographer and director. ... Ong-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior (2003) is an action film from Thailand in the mold of old school Jackie Chan-styled kung-fu flicks. ... Tom-Yum-Goong (Thai: ต้มยำกุ้ง; IPA: , distributed as Warrior King in the UK, as The Protector in the US) is a 2005 Thai martial arts film starring Tony Jaa. ... Wisit Sasanatieng (Thai วิศิษฏ์ ศาสนเที่ยง, born April 25, 1964 in Bangkok, Thailand) is a Thai film director and screenwriter. ... Tears of the Black Tiger (Thai: , or Fah talai jone, literally, the heavens strike the thief) is a 2000 Thai western film written and directed by Wisit Sasanatieng. ... Scene from the movie Mah Nakorn (English title: Citizen Dog, Thai: หมานคร) is a 2004 Thai romance film, directed by Wisit Sasanatieng and based on a story by Wisits wife, Koynuch (Siriphan Techajindawong), which was illustrated by him. ...


Vietnam

Main article: Cinema of Vietnam

The cinema of Vietnam has a history that goes back to the 1920s and has largedly been shaped by wars that have been fought in the country from the 1940s to the 1970s. ... Tran Anh Hung (born December 23, 1962) is a Vietnamese-born French film director. ... Overseas Vietnamese (Vietnamese: Việt Kiều, a Sino-Vietnamese word literally translating to Vietnamese sojourner ), refers to communities of Vietnamese living outside Vietnam in a diaspora. ... Cyclo is: A term used in Cambodia and Vietnam for a cycle rickshaw The 1995 Vietnamese film Cyclo This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Buffalo Boy (Mùa len trâu in Vietnamese, Le Gardien des Buffles in French) is a 2004 film directed by Minh Nguyen-Vo. ... Tony Bui (b. ... Dustin Nguyen Dustin Nguyen (born Nguyen Xuan Tri on September 17, 1962, in Saigon, South Vietnam) is a Vietnamese-American actor. ... Johnny Tri Nguyen (Vietnamese: Nguyễn Chánh Minh Trí, Chinese: 阮正明智 Ruǎn Zhèngmíngzhì; born February 16, 1974 in Binh Duong Province, South Vietnam) is a Vietnamese American film and television actor, stunt double, and martial artist. ... Tom-Yum-Goong (Thai: ต้มยำกุ้ง; IPA: , distributed as Warrior King in the UK, as The Protector in the US) is a 2005 Thai martial arts film starring Tony Jaa. ... Saigon Eclipse (Sài Gòn nhật thực) is a 2007 Vietnamese film. ...

See also

This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Asian cinema refers to the film industries and films produced in the continent of Asia. ... East Asian cinema (sometimes called Far Eastern cinema, Eastern cinema, Asian cinema or Oriental cinema) is a term used to refer to the film industry and films produced in, and/or by natives of, East Asia. ... South Asian cinema refers to the cinema of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives. ... Middle eastern cinema refers collectively to the film output and film industries of the middle east. ...

Further reading

  • Contemporary Asian Cinema, Anne Tereska Ciecko, editor. Berg, 2006. ISBN 1 84520237 6

External links

  • Criticine.com - Manila-based scholarly journal on Southeast Asian cinema.
  • Asian Film Archive - Singapore-based organization founded to preserve the film heritage of Singapore and Asian cinema.


For other meanings of the word, see Manila (disambiguation). ...



 

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