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The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of America. The most important conquistador in this conquest was Hernán Cortés. Image File history File links Aztecempirelocation. ...
Image File history File links Aztecempirelocation. ...
World map showing the Americas CIA political map of the Americas The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World consisting of the continents of North America[1] and South America with their associated islands and regions. ...
Conquistador (Spanish: []) (meaning Conqueror in the Spanish language) is the term used to refer to the soldiers, explorers and adventurers who brought much of the Americas and Asia Pacific under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 17th centuries, starting with the 1492 settlement established in the modern-day Bahamas...
Hernán(do) Cortés, Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ...
It is important to distinguish between the separate campaigns, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of Yucatán. Although the Yucatán Peninsula is part of the modern-day country of Mexico, the Spanish conquest of Mexico refers to the conquest of the Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés from 1519-1521. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, on the other hand, refers to the conquest and initial subjugation of the independent city-state polities of the Late Postclassic Maya civilization. It would take more than 170 years for the Spanish to establish control of the Maya homelands, which extended from northern Yucatán to the central lowlands region of El Petén and the southern Guatemalan highlands. The end of this latter campaign is generally marked by the downfall of the Maya state based at Tayasal in the Petén region, in 1697. The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities, particularly in the northern and central Yucatán Peninsula but also involving the Maya polities of the Guatemalan highlands region. ...
The Yucatán peninsula as seen from space The Yucatán Peninsula separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. ...
The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ...
Hernán(do) Cortés, Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ...
Polity is a general term that refers to political organization of a group. ...
Mesoamerican chronology The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: Paleo-Indian Period c. ...
74. ...
El Petén El Petén is a department of the nation of Guatemala. ...
Flores is the capital city of El Petén department of Guatemala. ...
Early years
Discovery of the Yucatán In 1517 Cuban governor Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, commissioned a fleet of three ships under the command of Hernández de Córdoba to sail west and explore the Yucatán peninsula. Córdoba reached the coast of Yucatan. The Mayans at Cape Catoche invited the Spaniards to land, upon which Córdoba had the Spaniards read the Requirement of 1513 to them. Córdoba took two prisoners whom he named Melchor and Julian to be interpreters. On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spaniards were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh (Mochh Couoh). Twenty Spaniards were killed. Córdoba was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew returned to Cuba. Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar (1465 – 1524) was a Spanish conquistador. ...
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (died 1517) was a Spanish conquistador, known to history mainly for the ill-fated expedition he led in 1517, in the course of which the Yucatán Peninsula was discovered by Europeans. ...
Yucatán is the name of one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. ...
This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...
To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...
The year after the ill-fated Córdoba expedition, Governor Velázquez decided to commission another expedition under the leadership of his nephew Juan de Grijalva. Grijalva's expedition of four ships sailed south along the coast of Yucatan to the Tabasco region, a part of the Aztec empire. Juan de Grijalva (born around 1489 in Cuéllar - January 21, 1527) was a Spanish conquistador. ...
Tabasco is a state in Mexico. ...
Mounting a third expedition to explore the mainland
Velázquez commissions Cortés to lead the expedition
Map depicting Cortes' invasion route Even before Grijalva returned to Cuba, Velázquez decided to send a third and even larger expedition to explore the Mexican coast. Hernán Cortés, then one of Velázquez's favourites, was named as the commander, a decision which created much envy and resentment among the Spanish contingent in the Cuban colony. Velázquez instructions to Cortés were to lead an expedition to initiate trade relations with the indigenous coastal tribes. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 399 pixel Image in higher resolution (1300 × 649 pixel, file size: 1. ...
Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 399 pixel Image in higher resolution (1300 × 649 pixel, file size: 1. ...
Hernán(do) Cortés, Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ...
One account suggests that Governor Velázquez wished to restrict the Cortés expedition to being a pure trading expedition. Invasion of the mainland was to be a privilege reserved for himself. However, by calling upon the knowledge of the law of Castile that he gained while a student in Salamanca and by utilizing his famous powers of persuasion, Cortés was able to maneuver Governor Velázquez into inserting a clause into his orders which enabled Cortés to take emergency measures without prior authorization if such were deemed "in the true interests of the realm."
Perceiving this to be the opportunity of a lifetime, Cortés embarked on this enterprise zealously and energetically. He began assembling a fleet of eleven ships and a force of well-armed men.
With perhaps too much ostentation, Cortés invested a considerable part of his personal fortune to equip the expedition. Cortés committed the greater part of his assets and went into debt to borrow additional funds when his assets ran out. Governor Velázquez personally contributed nearly half the cost of the expedition.
The ostentatiousness of his endeavor probably added to the envy and resentment of the Spanish contingent in Cuba who were also keenly aware of the opportunity that this assignment offered for fame, fortune and glory.
Velázquez tries to revoke Cortés' commission Velázquez himself must have been keenly aware that whoever conquered the mainland for Spain would gain fame, glory and fortune to eclipse anything that could be achieved in Cuba. Thus, as the preparations for departure drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that Cortés would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer the expedition for his own purposes, namely to establish himself as governor of Mexico, independent of Velázquez' control.
For this reason, Velázquez sent Luis de Medina with orders to replace Cortés. However, Cortés' brother-in-law had Medina intercepted and killed. The papers that Medina had been carrying were sent to Cortés. Thus warned, Cortés accelerated the organization and preparation of his expedition.
He was ready to set sail on the morning of January 18, 1519 when Velázquez arrived at the dock in person, determined to revoke Cortés's commission. But Cortés, pleading that "time presses," hurriedly set sail thus literally beginning his conquest of Mexico with the legal status of a mutineer. January 18 is the 18th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...
Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ...
Cortés' contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 100 sailors, 530 soldiers (including 30 crossbowmen and 12 harquebusiers), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred Cuban Indians and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves.
With this small force as a beginning, he would manage to conquer the Aztec empire which is estimated to have had a population between 2 to 8 million. While he did augment his force of Spanish soldiers in the subsequent two years, his victory hinged on his ability to form alliances with other Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Tlaxcaltecs which chafed under the domination of the Aztecs, and the deadly European and Asian diseases which ravaged other regions whose immune systems weren't capable of dealing with such complex and evolved viruses. Strategy and a bit of good luck also were critical to Cortés' success. Tlaxcaltec leader speaking to conquistador as depicted in History of Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, published in 1590 The Tlaxcaltecs or Tlacullos were an indigenous group of the Nahuatl culture that inhabited the area in Meso-America that approximates the territory currently known as the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico. ...
[1] [2] [3]
Cortés lands at Cozumel Cortés spent some time at Cozumel, trying to convert the locals to Christianity and achieving mixed results. While at Cozumel, Cortés heard reports of other white men living in the Yucatan. Cortés sent messengers to these reported castilianos, who turned out to be the survivors of the 1511 shipwreck, Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero. Location of Cozumel State Quintana Roo Presidente municipal Gustavo Ortega JoaquÃn Political Party PAN Area –Land –Water 647 km² Population –Total (2005) –Density 73,193 (2005 census) Time zone UTC –6 Latitude Longitude 20°30′ N 86°57′ W Cozumel (Mayan: Island of the Swallows) is an island in...
Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489-1531) was a Franciscan friar born in Seville. ...
Gonzalo Guerrero was a sailor from Palos, in Spain. ...
Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed leave to join with his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. According to Bernal Díaz, Aguilar relayed that before coming he had unsuccessfully attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya settlement of Chetumal where he lived.[1] Chetumal (coordinates: 18°30′N 88°20′W) is a city on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. ...
Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions and provide military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle.
Aguilar, now quite fluent in Yucatec Maya as well as some other indigenous languages, would prove to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator, a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire which would be the end result of Cortés' expedition.[2] Yucatec Maya (or Yukatek in the revised orthography of the Academia de Lenguas Mayas, now preferred by scholars) is a Mayan language spoken in the Yucatán Peninsula, northern Belize and parts of Guatemala. ...
Genealogy Areal Uto-Aztecan —5000 BP* Soshonean (N Uto-Aztecan) —3500 BP Numic (Plateau group) —2000 BP C Plateau Soshoni [SHH] Comanche [COM] Paramint [PAR] S Plateau Ute-Chemehuevi (S Paiute) [UTE] Kawaiisu [KAW] W Plateau Mono [MON] Paiute (Northern Paiute) [PAO] Takic ( Southern Californian) —2400...
Cortés lands on the Yucatán Peninsula After leaving Cozumel, Cortés continued round the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula and landed at Potonchanon, where there was little gold. However, Cortés discovered a far more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Cortés called Doña Marina. She is also sometimes called "Malintzin" or Mallinali. Later, the Aztecs would come to call Cortés "Malintzin" by dint of his close association with her. [4] La Malinche (c. ...
Bernal Diaz del Castillo wrote in his account The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, "an Aztec princess sold into Mayan slavery." She was not actually an Aztec princess. This article is about the people of the former Maya civilization after the conquest by Spain. ...
Her lineage notwithstanding, Cortés had stumbled upon one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak to Gerónimo de Aguilar in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Malinche. Malinche would then translate from Mayan to Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs quite effectively. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489-1531) was a Franciscan friar born in Seville. ...
Christened Marina by Cortés, she later learned Spanish, became Cortés' mistress and bore him a son. To some of her own people, her name would be referred in Spanish as "La Malinche", which became a term that denotes a traitor to one's people. To this day, the word malinchista is used by Mexicans to denote one who apes the language and customs of another country. [5]
La Malinche was later made legendary through depictions in book and film. La Malinche and Hernan Cortés in the city of Xaltelolco, in a drawing from the late 16th century codex History of Tlaxcala. ...
Cortés founds La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz Cortés landed his expedition force on the coast of the modern day state of Veracruz. He learned of an indigenous settlement called Cempoala and marched his forces there. On their arrival in Cempoala, they were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk. The state of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that compose Mexico (does not include the Mexican Federal District). ...
Cortés quickly persuaded the Totonac chief Xicomecoatl (also known as King Chicomacatt) to rebel against the Aztecs. The Totonacs and Spanish evicted the Aztecs in short order.
Faced with imprisonment or death for defying the governor if he returned to Cuba, Cortés' only alternative was to continue on with his enterprise in the hope of redeeming himself with the Spanish Crown. To do this, he directed his men to establish a settlement called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The legally-constituted "town council of Villa Rica" then promptly offered him the post of captain-general.
By getting himself elected as chief administrative officer, Cortés was able to renounce his obligation as a subordinate of Governor Velásquez. Ironically, Velásquez had used this same legal mechanism to free himself from Columbus' authority in Cuba.
The Totonacs helped Cortés build the town of La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz which was his starting point for his attempt to conquer the Aztec empire. This settlement eventually grew into the city now known as Veracruz ("True Cross"). Veracruz is the name of a city and a state in Mexico. ...
Cortés as Quetzalcoatl Cortés learned that the land was ruled by Moctezuma II, the huey tlatoani in the city of Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma or Montezuma II, also known as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (c. ...
A tlatoani was a member of the Aztec nobility. ...
Tenochtitlan, looking east. ...
Initially, the Aztecs offered little resistance to the advances of the conquerors. In fact, ambassadors from Moctezuma II soon arrived with additional gifts.
In his letters to Charles V, Cortés claims to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself. Charles V (24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Burgundian territories (1506-1555), King of Spain (1516-1556), King of Naples and Sicily (1516-1554), Archduke of Austria (1519-1521), King of the Romans (or German King), (1519-1556 but did not formally abdicate until 1558) and...
Quetzalcoatl was a legendary god-king who controlled lightning and who, according to a prophecy, would return on a day in one of the One-Reed years to reclaim his city. The Pre-Columbian calendar was divided into 52 year periods or cycles. Every 52nd year was a Ce-Acatl year". 1519 was a One-Reed year to the native people, further attesting to Cortés as Quetzalcoatlé. It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ...
This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...
While Quetzalcoatl was a mythic god whom the Mexica saw as a tie to the earlier Toltec peoples from whom they claimed descent, there is little known evidence supporting a Pre-Hispanic myth alleging his "return." Ironically, Cortés does not mention the alleged "god worship" episode in his letters to King Charles V of Spain. He may not even have known about it. The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ...
The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula The word Toltec in Mesoamerican studies has been used in different ways by different scholars to refer to actual populations and polities of precolumbian central Mexico or to the mythical ancestors mentioned in the mythical/historical narratives of the...
Modern scholarship has begun to question this version of events, however. Current scholarship on this topic is complex, and no consensus has been reached. Some argue that this Cortés-Quetzalcoatl connection was a post-colonial retelling by the Mexica to account for the Conquest. Some argue that this was a natural evolution from the Mexica concept of cosmology, in which (it is asserted) time is cyclical; therefore, the Mexica must have believed that events in the past would be repeated in the future (such as Quetzalcoatl's return). Finally, some assert that the myth was a fabrication of the Spanish, used both to assert the inevitability of the outcome of the Conquest and to forge a link between the ancient gods and Christ (to whom Quetzalcoatl was often implicitly compared).
Noted Aztec scholars like Ross Hassig of the University of Oklahoma have argued that Quetzalcoatl was actually a religious order of priests during the previous Toltec era. This order of priests, under the tutelage of its leader--Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl-- is famous for its exile into the eastern area of Mexico (what is now known as Yucatán). It may have been thought, then, that the Spaniards were of the lineage of that "Order of Quetzalcoatl," and hence, deserved serious diplomatic accommodations. It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ...
A religious order may mean any of the following: // In Buddhist societies such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, Korea and Tibet, a religious order is one of the strikingly large number of monastic orders of monks and nuns. ...
The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula The word Toltec in Mesoamerican studies has been used in different ways by different scholars to refer to actual populations and polities of precolumbian central Mexico or to the mythical ancestors mentioned in the mythical/historical narratives of the...
Cortés orders his fleet scuttled Those of his men still loyal to the Governor of Cuba conspired to seize a ship and escape to Cuba, but Cortés moved swiftly to quash their plans. To make sure such a mutiny did not happen again, he decided to scuttle his ships, on the pretext that they were no longer seaworthy. There is a popular misconception that Cortés burned the ships instead of scuttling them. This may have come from a mistranslation of the version of the story written in Latin. [6] German battlecruiser Derfflinger scuttled at Scapa Flow. ...
With all of his ships scuttled except for one small ship with which to communicate with Spain, Cortés effectively stranded the expedition in Mexico and ended all thoughts of loyalty to the Governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards the fabled Tenochtitlan. The ship was loaded with the Royal Fifth ( the King of Spain's claim 20% of all spoils) of the Aztec treasure they had obtained so far in order to speed up Cortés claim to the governorship.
In addition to the Spaniards, Cortés force now included 40 Cempoalan warrior chiefs and 200 other natives whose task it was to drag the cannon and carry the supplies. The Cempoalans were accustomed to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as they marched towards Tenochtitlan.
Alliance with Tlaxcalteca Cortés arrived at Tlaxcala, a confederacy of about 200 towns, but without central government. Their main city was Tlaxcala. After almost a century of fighting the flower wars, a great deal of hate and bitterness had developed between the Tlaxcalans and the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalans knew that eventually the Aztecs would try to conquer them. It was just a matter of time before this tension developed into a real conflict. The Aztecs had already conquered much of the territory around Tlaxcala.[7] Picture from the History of Tlaxcala showing Cortés meeting with the Tlaxcallan messengers. ...
A flower war (or flowery war) was the name given by the Aztec to a planned war, where the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe eaten. ...
The Tlaxcalans initially greeted the Spanish with hostile action, and the two sides fought a series of battles. Conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo describes the first battle between the Spanish force and the Tlaxcalteca as surprisingly difficult. He writes that they probably would not have survived, had not Xicotencatl the Elder persuaded the Tlaxcallan warleader his son, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them. Bernal D az del Castillo (1492 or 1493 - 1581) was a conquistador, who wrote an eyewitness account of the conquest of Mexico under Hern n Cort s. ...
On 18 September 1519, Cortés arrived in Tlaxcala and was greeted with joy by the rulers, who already saw the Spanish as a possible ally against the Aztecs. Due to a commercial blockade by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was poor, lacking, among other things, both salt and cotton cloth, so they could only offer Cortés and his men food and women. Cortés stayed 20 days in Tlaxcala. It was there that he could appreciate for the first time the way of life of the inhabitants of Mesoamerica. Cortés seems to have won the true friendship of the old leaders of Tlaxcala, among them Maxixcatzin and Xicotencatl the Elder, although he could not win the heart of Xicotencatl the Younger. The Spaniards agreed to respect parts of the city, like the temples, and only took the things that were offered to them freely. September 18 is the 261st day of the year (262nd in leap years). ...
Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ...
All that time Cortés offered to talk about the benefits of Christianity. Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlaxcala to become baptized. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder, Citalpopocatzin and Temiloltecutl received the names of Don Lorenzo, Don Vicente, Don Bartolomé and Don Gonzalo.
It's difficult to know if they understood the Catholic faith. In any event, they apparently had no problems in adding the new god "Dios" (in Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex pantheon of gods. The Aztec civilization recognized many gods and supernatural creatures. ...
An exchange of gifts was made and thus began the alliance between Cortés and Tlaxcala.[3]
Cortés marches to Cholula Meanwhile Mexica ambassadors continued to press Cortés to leave Tlaxcala , the "city of poor and thieves" and go to the neighbouring city of Cholula, which was under Aztec influence. Cholula, founded in the year 2, was one of the most important cities of Mesoamerica, the second largest, and probably the most sacred. Its huge pyramid made it one of the most prestigious places of the Aztec religion. However, it appears that Cortés perceived Cholula as a military power rather than a religious center. He sent emissaries first. The Roman Catholic church of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios overlooks the town of Cholula from atop the Great Pyramid. ...
Gaius Caesar meets with the king of Parthia on the Euphrates. ...
The leaders of Tlaxcala urged Cortés to go instead to Huexotzingo, a city allied to Tlaxcala. Cortés, who had not yet decided to start a war by going to Huexotzingo, decided to make a compromise. He accepted the gifts of the Mexica ambassadors, but also accepted the offer of the Tlaxclateca to provide porters and warriors. He sent two men, Pedro de Alvarado, and Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia, on foot (he did not want to spare any horses), directly to Tenochtitlan, as ambassadors.
On October 12, 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 3,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula. October 12 is the 285th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (286th in leap years). ...
Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ...
Massacre of Cholula There are contradictory reports of what happened at Cholula. Moctezuma had apparently tried to stop the advance of Cortés and his troops, and it seems that he ordered the leaders of Cholula to try to stop him. Cholula had a very small army, since as a sacred city, they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods. Unfortunately, they were playing by Native American rules, not Spanish rules. According to the chronicles of the Tlaxcalteca, the priest of Cholula expected to use the power of Quetzalcoatl against them. But La Malinche relayed to Cortés a rumor that the locals planned to murder the Spaniards in their sleep and appropriate precautions were taken. La Malinche and Hernan Cortés in the city of Xaltelolco, in a drawing from the late 16th century codex History of Tlaxcala. ...
Although he did not know if the rumor was true or not, Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike to serve as a lesson. The Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles. After Cortés arrived to Cholula he seized their leaders Tlaquiach and Tlalchiac and then ordered the city set fire. The troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. In his letters, Cortés claimed that in three hours time his troops killed 3,000 people and burned the city.
The Azteca and Tlaxclateca histories of the events leading up to the massacre differ. The Tlaxcalteca claimed that their ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had been tortured by the Cholula. Thus, Cortés was avenging him by attacking the Cholula. (Historia de Tlaxcala, por Diego Muñoz Camargo, lib. II cap. V. 1550).
The Aztec version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of Huexotzingo.[4]
The massacre had a chilling effect on the other Mesoamerican cultures and on the Mexica themselves. The tale of the massacre inclined the other cultures in the Aztec empire to submit to Cortés' demands rather than risk the same fate.
Cortés then sent emissaries to Moctezuma with the message that the people of Cholula had treated him with disrespect and had therefore been punished. Cortés' message continued that the Aztecs need not fear his wrath if Moctezuma treated him with respect and gifts of gold.
Tenochtitlan It took nearly three months for Cortés and his men to reach the outskirts of Tenochtitlan, the island capital city of the Aztecs. Finally, on November 8, 1519, Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan, the Mexica-Aztec capital. November 8 is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 53 days remaining. ...
Events March 4 - Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico. ...
Tenochtitlan, looking east. ...
It is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world at that time. Of all the cities in Europe, only Constantinople was larger than Tenochtitlan. The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people.
Cortés welcomed by Moctezuma
 Meeting place of Montezuma and Hernán Cortés According to the Aztec chronicles recorded by Sahagún, the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II, thinking Cortés to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl, welcomed him with great pomp. Sahagún reports that Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to Tenochtitlan on the Great Causeway into the "Venice of the West", probably the largest city on earth.[citation needed] Download high resolution version (1024x768, 443 KB)Place of encounter of Mocetezuma Xocoyotzin and the Spanish Conquistador Hernan Cortes on the 8 day of November 1519. ...
Download high resolution version (1024x768, 443 KB)Place of encounter of Mocetezuma Xocoyotzin and the Spanish Conquistador Hernan Cortes on the 8 day of November 1519. ...
Moctezuma or Montezuma II, also known as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (c. ...
A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma say: "My lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired: to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city: México, here you have come to sit on your place, on your throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it was conserved by those who have gone, your substitutes... This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of your royal houses, give food to your body."[5]
According to Sahagún's manuscript, Moctezuma personally dressed Cortés with flowers of his own gardens, the highest honour he could give, although probably Cortés did not understand the significance of the gesture.
Many historians are skeptical of Sahagun's account that Moctezuma personally met Cortés on the Great Causeway because of the many proscriptions and prohibitions regarding the emperor vis-à-vis his subjects. For instance, when Moctezuma dined, he ate behind a screen so as to shield him from his court and servants. There were various restrictions on seeing and touching his person. Given Mexica feelings towards the dirty, rude and unwashed Spaniard, it seems highly unlikely that Moctezuma would have personally met them as they came into the city: to do so would have been to profane himself in front of his people.
This contradiction between "the arrogant emperor" and the "humble servant of Quetzalcoatl" has been problematic for historians to explain and has led to a lot of speculation. All the proscriptions and prohibitions regarding Moctezuma and his people, had been established by Moctezuma, and were not part of the traditional Aztec customs. Those prohibitions had already caused friction between Moctezuma and the pillis (upper classes). There is even a Aztec legend in which Huemac, the legendary last lord of Tollan Xicotitlan, instructed Moctezuma to live humbly, and eat only the food of the poor, to divert a future catastrophe. Thus, it seems out of character for Moctezuma to violate rules that he himself had promulgated.
Moctezuma had the palace of his father Auítzotl prepared to house the Spanish and their 3000 native allies. Cortés asked Moctezuma to provide more gifts of gold to demonstrate his fealty as a vassal of Charles V. Cortés also demanded that the two large idols be removed from the main temple pyramid in the city, the human blood scrubbed off, and shrines to the Virgin Mary and St. Christopher be set up in their place. All his demands were met. Cortés then seized Moctezuma in his own palace and made him his prisoner as insurance against Aztec revolt, and demanded an enormous ransom of gold, which was duly delivered. AuÃtzotl (sometimes rendered as Ahuitzotl or Axayacatl) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the Chief Speaker, of the city of Tenochtitlán. ...
The Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor was the main temple of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). ...
Our Lady redirects here. ...
This article is about the Christian saint known as Christopher. ...
Knowing that their leader was in chains and being required to feed not just a band of Spaniards but thousands of their Tlaxcalteca allies, the populace of Tenochtitlan began to feel a strain weighing upon them.
Defeat of Narváez At this point, Cortés received news from the coast that a much larger party of Spaniards under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez had arrived. Narváez had been sent by Governor Velázquez not only to supersede Cortés, but to arrest him and bring him to trial in Cuba for insubordination, mutiny and treason. Pánfilo de Narváez Pánfilo de Narváez (1470 – 1528) was a Spanish conqueror and soldier in the Americas. ...
Cortés' response was arguably one of the most daring of his many exploits. Some describe it as absolutely reckless but he really had few other options. If arrested and convicted, he could have been executed. Leaving only one hundred and forty men under Pedro de Alvarado to hold Tenochtitlan, Cortés set out against Narvaez, who had nine hundred soldiers, whereas Cortés, reinforced as he approached the coast, mustered about two hundred and sixty. With this much smaller force, Cortés surprised his antagonist by means of a night attack during which Cortés' men took Narváez prisoner. Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (Badajoz, c. ...
The move was a desperate one but the secret of Cortés' success lay in his marvellously quick movements, for which Narváez was not prepared, as well as in his rapid return to the plateau, by which he surprised the Indians who held Alvarado and his people at their mercy.
The desperate defense of the Spaniards in the absence of Cortés would have been unavailing had the latter not moved quickly. In contrast with that lightning-like quickness, but equally well adapted to the necessities of the case, was the methodical investment and capture of the Tenochtitlan, showing the flexibility of the Cortés in adapting his tactics to various situations.
When Cortés told the defeated soldiers about the city of gold, Tenochtitlan, they agreed to join him. (Narváez lost an eye, but an even worse fate awaited him during the exploration of Florida, where he was killed.)
Cortés then had to lead the combined forces on an arduous trek back over the Sierra Madre Oriental. Years later, when asked what the new land was like, Cortés crumpled up a piece of parchment, then spread it part way out: "Like this", he said. The Sierra Madre Oriental is a mountain range in northeastern Mexico, spanning 1000 km from Coahuila south through Nuevo León, southwest Tamaulipas, San Luis PotosÃ, Hidalgo, to northern Puebla and Querétaro, where it joins with the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Eje Volcánico Transversal of central Mexico. ...
Revolt of the Aztecs Meanwhile, other Aztec nobles were in dismay at the royal submissive attitude and planned a successful, but temporary, rebellion which resulted in driving Cortés and his allies out of Tenochtitlan.
When Cortés returned to the city, he found that Alvarado and his men had attacked and killed many of the Aztec nobility (see The Massacre in the Main Temple) during a festival. Alvarado's explanation to Cortés was that Alvarado had learned that the Aztecs planned to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the festival was complete, and so he had launched a preemptive attack. Considerable doubt has been cast by different commentators on this explanation, which may have been self-serving rationalization on the part of Alvarado, who may have attacked out of fear (or greed) where no immediate threat existed. In any event, the population of the city rose en masse after the Spanish attack. The Massacre in the Main Temple of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán is an episode in the conquest of Mexico by Spain. ...
The Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards and Moctezuma. The people of Tenochtitlan chose a new leader, Cuitláhuac. Cortés ordered Moctezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast in peace. Moctezuma was jeered and stones were thrown at him, injuring him badly. Moctezuma died a few days later (accounts as to who was actually guilty of his death do not agree; Aztec informants in later years insisted that Cortés had him killed.) After his death Cuitláhuac was elected as Tlatoani. Cuitláhuac was the Aztec ruler (Tlatoani) of the city of Tenochtitlán from June to October 1520. ...
The Spaniards and their allies had to flee the city, as the population of Tenochtitlan had risen against them and the Spanish situation could only deteriorate. They took all the gold they could carry; Bernal Diaz relates that the men formerly of Narvaez' contingent particularly loaded themselves down. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the mainland, Cortés' men constructed a portable bridge with which to cross the openings. On the rainy night of 1 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to Tlacopan. They placed the bridge unit in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus caught on a narrow road with water on two sides. The retreat quickly turned into chaos. The Spanish discovered that they could not remove their bridge unit from the first gap, and so had no choice but to leave it behind. The bulk of the Spanish infantry, left behind by Cortés and the other horsemen, had to cut their way through the masses of Aztec warriors opposing them. Many of the Spaniards, weighed down by gold, drowned in the causeway gaps or were killed by the Aztecs. Much of the wealth the Spaniards had acquired in Tenochtitlan was lost in this manner. During the escape, Alvarado is alleged to have jumped across one of the narrower channels. The channel is now a street in Mexico City, called "Salto de Alvarado" (Alvarado's jump). July 1 is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 183 days remaining. ...
mary elline m. ...
In this retreat the Spaniards suffered heavy casualties, losing probably more than 600 of their own number and several thousand Tlaxcalan warriors. It is said that Cortés, upon reaching the mainland at Tlacopan, wept over their losses. This episode is called "La Noche Triste" (The sad night). And the old tree ("El árbol de la noche triste") where Cortés allegedly cried is still a monument in Mexico. Hernán Cortés Hernán Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who conquered Mexico for Spain. ...
Spaniards find refuge in Tlaxcala The Aztecs pursued and harassed the Spanish, who, guided by their Tlaxcalan allies, moved around Lake Zumpango toward sanctuary in Tlaxcala. On 8 July 1520 the Aztecs attempted to destroy the Spanish for good at the battle of Otumba. Although hard-pressed, the Spanish infantry was able to hold off the overwhelming numbers of enemy warriors, while the Spanish cavalry under the leadership of Cortés charged through the enemy ranks again and again. When Cortés and his men killed one of the Aztec leaders, the enemy broke off the battle and left the field. The Spanish were able then to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. There they were given assistance and comfort, since almost all of them were wounded, and only 20 horses were left. The Aztecs sent emissaries and asked the Tlaxcalteca to turn over the Spaniards to them, but the people of Tlaxcala refused. July 8 is the 189th day of the year (190th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 176 days remaining. ...
mary elline m. ...
Combatants Spain TlaxcallÄn Aztec Empire Commanders Hernán Cortés Pedro de Alvarado Cuitláhuac Cuauhtémoc Strength 86 cavalry 900 infantry 80,000 natives 100,000- 300,000 warriors[1] Casualties 20,000 natives dead 100,000 dead 100,000 civilian dead The Siege of Tenochtitlan ended in...
While the flower wars had started as a mutual agreement, the Tlaxcala and the Aztecs had become entangled in a true war. The Aztecs had conquered almost all the territories around Tlaxcala, closing off commerce with them. The Tlaxcalteca knew it was just a matter of time before the Aztecs tried to conquer Tlaxcala itself. Therefore, most of the Tlaxcalan leaders were receptive when Cortés, once his men had the chance to recuperate, proposed an alliance to conquer Tenochtitlan. Xicotencatl the Younger, however, opposed the idea, and instead connived with the Aztec ambassadors in an attempt to form a new alliance with the Mexicans, since the Tlaxcalans and the Aztecs shared the same language and religion. Finally the elders of Tlaxcala accepted Cortés' offer under stringent conditions: they would not be required to pay any form of tribute to the Spaniards, they should receive the city of Cholula in return, they would have the right to build a fortress in Tenochtitlan, so they could have control of the city, and they would receive a share of the spoils of war. A flower war (or more correctly, flowery war) from the Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl; was, among the Aztec, a planned war in which the objective was not to kill enemies or conquer territory, but rather to capture as many prisoners as possible, who would then be sacrificed in religious ceremonies and maybe...
Cortés knew that without this alliance the Spanish had little chance of surviving, especially if the Tlaxcalteca decided to join the Mexica. He accepted in the name of His Catholic Majesty, Charles V.
Unfortunately for the Tlaxcalteca, the Spanish had no intentions of turning over the city of Tenochtitlan to them. While Tlaxcalteca troops continued to help the Spaniards after the fall of Tenochtitlan and the region received better treatment, the Spanish would be the new rulers and would eventually disown the treaty. Forty years after the conquest, the Tlaxcalteca would have to pay the same tributes as any of the other indigenous cultures.
Siege of Tenochtitlan -
The joint forces of Tlaxcala and Cortés proved to be formidable. One by one they took over most of the cities under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy. At the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring city of Tlatelolco remained unconquered. Combatants Spain TlaxcallÄn Aztec Empire Commanders Hernán Cortés Pedro de Alvarado Cuitláhuac Cuauhtémoc Strength 86 cavalry 900 infantry 80,000 natives 100,000- 300,000 warriors[1] Casualties 20,000 natives dead 100,000 dead 100,000 civilian dead The Siege of Tenochtitlan ended in...
Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and mounted a siege of the city that relied on cutting the causeways from the mainland, while controlling the lake with armed brigantines constructed by the Spanish. The siege of Tenochtitlan lasted months. The besiegers cut off the supply of food and destroyed the aqueduct carrying water to the city. Even worse, many of the inhabitants of the city were also being ravaged by the effects of smallpox, which was spreading rapidly across most of Mexico, killing hundreds of thousands. In fact, a third of the inhabitants of the entire valley died in less than six months from the new disease brought from Europe. Cannons, horse cavalry, and starvation did the rest. Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, despite the valiant resistance, fell on August 13, 1521 when the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc, surrendered to Cortés. Still the Spaniards asked for a last tribute to secure peace: gold, food and women of fair skin. (Sahagun, Anonymous informants of Tlatelolco 1521). Combatants Spain TlaxcallÄn Aztec Empire Commanders Hernán Cortés Pedro de Alvarado Cuitláhuac Cuauhtémoc Strength 86 cavalry 900 infantry 80,000 natives 100,000- 300,000 warriors[1] Casualties 20,000 natives dead 100,000 dead 100,000 civilian dead The Siege of Tenochtitlan ended in...
Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. ...
August 13 is the 225th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (226th in leap years), with 140 days remaining. ...
Events January 3 - Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther in the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. ...
Cuauhtémoc tortured by Hernán Cortéz This article is about the Aztec Emperor named Cuauhtémoc. ...
The city had been almost totally destroyed by fire and cannon shot during the siege, and once it finally fell the Spanish continued its dismantlement, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become Mexico City on the site. Meanwhile the surviving Aztec people were forbidden to live in Tenochtitlan and the surrounding isles. The survivors went to live in Tlatelolco. Nickname: Ciudad de los Palacios Location of Mexico City in central Mexico Coordinates: Country Mexico Federal entity Federal District Boroughs The 16 delegaciones Founded (as Tenochtitlan) c. ...
After the fall of Tenochtitlan After the fall of the city, Cortés imprisoned the royal families of the valley. Among other important figures, he personally tortured and killed Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch the King of Texcoco and Tetlepanquetzal, King of Tlacopan (February 28, 1525). He wanted to get from them the location of the Moctezuma gold treasure and expected to avoid another Aztec rebellion. February 28 is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...
Integration into the Spanish Empire The Council of the Indies was constituted in 1524 and the first Audiencia in 1527. In 1535, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Spain named Antonio de Mendoza the first viceroy of New Spain. The name "New Spain" had been suggested by Cortés and was later confirmed officially by Mendoza. The Consejo de Indias (Council of the Indies), in full the Real y Supremo Consejo de Indias (Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies) was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire, both in administering the Americas and in the Philippines, combining legislative, executive and judicial functions. ...
Events March 1, 1524/5 - Giovanni da Verrazano lands near Cape Fear (approx. ...
An Real Audiencia (Spanish: Royal Audiency) was a Judicial District that functioned as an Appeals Court. ...
January 5 - Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, was drowned in the Limmat in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church. ...
Events January 18 - Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro April - Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga June 24 - The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded. ...
The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ...
Charles V (24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Burgundian territories (1506-1555), King of Spain (1516-1556), King of Naples and Sicily (1516-1554), Archduke of Austria (1519-1521), King of the Romans (or German King), (1519-1556 but did not formally abdicate until 1558) and...
Don Antonio de Mendoza, conde de Tendilla, was the first Viceroy of New Spain, serving from 1535 - 1550. ...
This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...
Conquest of Mesoamerica The fall of Tenochtitlan usually is referred to as the main episode in the process of the conquest of Mesoamerica. However, this process was much more complex and took longer than the three years that it took Cortés' to conquer Tenochtitlan. Combatants Spain TlaxcallÄn Aztec Empire Commanders Hernán Cortés Pedro de Alvarado Cuitláhuac Cuauhtémoc Strength 86 cavalry 900 infantry 80,000 natives 100,000- 300,000 warriors[1] Casualties 20,000 natives dead 100,000 dead 100,000 civilian dead The Siege of Tenochtitlan ended in...
Even after the fall of Tenochtitlan, most of the other Mesoamerican cultures were intact. The Tlaxcalteca expected to get their part of the treaty; the Purepechas and Mixtecs were happy at the defeat of their longtime enemy, and possibly other cultures were equally pleased. Tarascan men reeling cord for nets & making nets, 1899. ...
Codex Zouche-Nuttall, a pre-Columbian piece of Mixtec writing, now in the British Museum The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are a Native American people centered in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. ...
It took almost 60 years of wars for the Spaniards to conquer Mesoamerica. The main resistance was the episode called the Chichimeca wars. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán took almost 170 years. The whole process could have taken longer were it not for three separate epidemics that took a heavy toll on the Native Americans, killing almost 75% of the population and causing the collapse of Mesoamerican cultures. The Chichimeca are a group of nomads in northern Mexico. ...
The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities, particularly in the northern and central Yucatán Peninsula but also involving the Maya polities of the Guatemalan highlands region. ...
An epidemic is generally a widespread disease that affects many individuals in a population. ...
Fate of the Aztec empire under Spanish rule It seems that Cortés' intention was to maintain the basic structure of the Aztec empire under his leadership, and at first it seemed the Aztec empire could survive. The upper Aztec classes, at first, were considered as noblemen (to this day, the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a Spanish noble family). The upper classes learned Spanish, and several learned to write in European characters. Some of their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of the Aztecs. Also, the first missionaries tried to learn Nahuatl and some, like Bernardino de Sahagún, decided to learn as much as they could of the Aztec culture.
But soon all that changed. To pay off the Spanish army that captured Mexico the soldiers and officers were granted large areas of land and the natives who lived on them as a type of feudalism. Although officially they could not become slaves, the system, known as encomienda, became a system of oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators may not have set out with such intent. Huamán Poma de Ayalas picture of an encomienda indian and a encomendero The encomienda system was a trusteeship labor system used during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. ...
In short order, the upper echelons of patrons and priests in the society lived off the work of the lower classes. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas suggested importing black slaves to replace them. Bartolomé later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves. The other discovery that perpetuated this system was extensive silver mines discovered at Potosi, in Peru and other places that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain. Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the Protestant Reformation. Bartolomé de Las Casas This article is about a Spanish priest in the 16th century. ...
The conquistadors brought with them the Catholic faith and a lot of priests, to which the population was converted rapidly, or at least, nominally so. Because of their success in getting rid of the Muslims in Spain, the Catholic Church operated almost as an arm of the Spanish government.
It soon became apparent that most of the natives had adopted "the god of the heavens", as they called it, as just another one of their many gods. While it was an important god, because it was the god of the conquerors, they did not see why they had to abandon their old beliefs. As a result, a second wave of missionaries began a process attempting to completely erase the old beliefs, and thus wiped out many aspects of Mesoamerican culture. Hundreds of thousands of Aztec codices were destroyed, Aztec priests and teachers were persecuted, and the temples and statues of the old gods were destroyed. First page of the Codex Argenteus A codex (Latin for block of wood, book; plural codices) is a handwritten book, in general, one produced from Late Antiquity through the Middle Ages. ...
The Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education. Even some foods associated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as amaranto, were forbidden. Species See text The amaranths (also called pigweeds) comprise the genus Amaranthus, a widely distributed genus of short-lived herbs, occurring mostly in temperate and tropical regions. ...
Eventually, the Indians were not only forbidden to learn of their cultures, but also were forbidden to learn to read and write in Spanish. In some areas, some of the natives were declared minors, and forbidden to learn to read and write, so they would always need a Spanish man in charge of them to be responsible of their indoctrination. The term minor (from Latin smaller, lesser) has several meanings: Minor is a legal term for a young person, see Minor (law). ...
Unlike the English-speaking colonists of North America, the majority of the Spanish colonists were single men who married or made concubines of the natives, and were even encouraged to do so by Queen Isabella during the earliest days of colonization. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage and secret mistresses, a vast class of people known as "Mestizos" and mulattos came into being. But even if mixes were allowed, the white population tried, largely successfully even today, to keep their status via a caste system. The name Isabella, also Isabel, is sometimes translated into its English equivalent, Elizabeth. ...
Mestizo (Portuguese, Mestiço; French, Métis: from Late Latin mixticius, from Latin mixtus, past participle of miscere, to mix) is a term of Spanish origin used to designate people of mixed European and indigenous non-European ancestry. ...
Look up Casta in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
See also Mexico is a country of North America and the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. ...
References
Primary sources - Anonymous Conqueror, the [1550] (1917). Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan, Marshall Saville (trans).
- Hernán Cortés, Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN 0-300-09094-3
- Francisco López de Gómara, Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain
- Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X
- León-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) [1959] (1992). The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico, Ángel María Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.), Expanded and updated edition, Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-8.
The Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan is a historical document dating from the 16th century, one of the few surviving contemporary Spanish accounts from the period of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and central Mexico (1519—1521). ...
Bernal DÃaz del Castillo (1492 or 1493 - 1581) was a conquistador, who wrote an eyewitness account of the conquest of Mexico under Hernán Cortés. ...
Miguel León-Portilla (born in Mexico City, 22 February 1926) is a Mexican anthropologist and historian, and the prime authority on Nahuatl thought and literature. ...
Fray Ãngel MarÃa Garibay K.(intana) (June 18, 1892– October 19, 1967) was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest, philologist, linguist, historian, and scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, specifically of the Nahua peoples of the central Mexican highlands. ...
Secondary sources - History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William H. Prescott [8]
- Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0-671-51104-1
- Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0-7867-0271-0
- History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H. Prescott ISBN 0-375-75803-8
- The Rain God cries over Mexico by László Passuth
- Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-516077-0
- The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov (1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1
- Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico by Ross Hassig, Texas University Press (2001) ISBN 0-292-73139-6
- The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society by Frances F. Berdan, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, (1982) ISBN 0-03-055736-4
Hugh Thomas can refer to: Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton - British historian and life peer Hugh Thomas (actor) - film and TV actor Hugh Thomas (composer) - musical composer Category: ...
William Hickling Prescott (May 4, 1796 - January 29, 1859) was a historian. ...
Tzvetan Todorov (Bulgarian: ) (born on March 1, 1939 in Sofia) is a Franco-Bulgarian philosopher. ...
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