The hero and god Heracles, from whom the kings of Sparta were reputed to have descended.

The Spartan Army was the military force of Sparta, one of the leading city-states of ancient Greece. Sparta created one of the toughest and most disciplined armies in world history^[1] . Their soldiers were trained from infancy to be tough and obedient to their laws. Image File history File links Acap. ... You may be looking for: History of Sparta for historical information Sparta for a look at Sparta in a more geographical sense Spartan Army for the wars and soldiers of Sparta Category: ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 427 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1576 × 2212 pixel, file size: 449 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Lernaean Hydra ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 427 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (1576 × 2212 pixel, file size: 449 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Lernaean Hydra ... Hercules, a Roman bronze (Louvre Museum) For other uses, see Heracles (disambiguation). ... Sparta (Doric: Spártā, Attic: Spártē) is a city in southern Greece. ... A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city. ... Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around nine hundred years. ...

Sparta enjoyed a period of supremacy after the Peloponnesian War until they met their first decisive land defeats against Iphicrates of Athens and Epaminondas of Thebes.^[2] The troops were citizens known as the Spartiates, the superior social class of Sparta called in Greek Homoioi and granted land or kleros for their military service; the others were the Helots (who were slaves used to farm the kleros) and the Perioeci or upper-slave-class, generally merchants, craftsmen and sailors^[3]. Spanning the late archaic period and classical Greece, the Spartan army fought in phalanx formation with very little auxiliary support^[2] from peltasts or, until 404 BC, cavalry (hippeis) when they were formed into a cavalry corps. “Athenian War” redirects here. ... Iphicrates (d. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... For information about the modern board game of the same name, see Epaminondas (game). ... Thebes (Demotic Greek: Θήβα — Thíva; Katharevousa: — Thêbai or Thívai) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. ... Spartiates were the elite warrior class of the rigidly hierarchical Spartan society. ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ... Former Spartan slaves, now free (possibly from escape). ... The archaic period in Greece is the period during which the ancient Greek city-states developed, and is normally taken to cover roughly the 9th century to the 6th century BCE. The Archaic period followed the dark ages, and saw significant advancements in political theory, and the rise of democracy... Parthenon This article is on the term Classical Greece itself. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... A peltast was a type of light infantry in Ancient Greece who often served as skirmishers. ... Centuries: 6th century BC - 5th century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC - 400s BC - 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC Years: 409 BC 408 BC 407 BC 406 BC 405 BC - 404 BC - 403 BC 402 BC... Not to be confused with Golgotha, which was called Calvary. ... Hippeis was the Greek term for cavalry. ...

The first reference to the Spartans at war is in the Iliad. While this is undoubtedly fictional, archeology has shown many important areas of it to be true or near-truth. It shows the Spartans as chariot warriors, and infantry who fought for personal glory. Later the army was issued aspis shields which made the new phalanx formation possible. The army adopted this, probably in response to the Argives. In 550 the entire state dedicated itself to fuelling the Spartan war machine, and using helots to farm the land owned by spartiates, and Perioeci as sailors, tradesmen and light infantry. By the end of the Corinthian War, however, dissent was brewing and the city of Thebes revolted and in a short campaign led by Epiminondas won the Theban War, annexing Sparta to the assembly of Thebes. title page of the Rihel edition of ca. ... Archaeology or sometimes in American English archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... An aspis (Ancient Greek Ασπις, IPA [aspis]) is the generic term for the word shield. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

When the Theban-Athenian alliance was defeated by Macedon at the Battle of Chaeronea, Sparta was taken over. The Spartans refused, however, to attack the Persians with Alexander. Fortunately, Alexander died in Babylon before he could settle them. This triggered yet another Greek civil war which Sparta used to break from Thebes. The Romans then saw Sparta as a good conquest, and brought the Achaean League against the Spartans. The war was a Roman victory, but Sparta was allowed to remain a ‘free’ city. Combatants Macedon Athens, Thebes Commanders Philip II of Macedon, Alexander the Great Chares of Athens, Lysicles of Athens, Theagenes of Boeotia Strength 32,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry 35,000 Casualties Unknown 1,000 Athenians killed, 254 Boeotians killed, 2,000 captured The Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), fought near... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... For other uses, see Babylon (disambiguation). ...

The army in the Mycenaean age

At this time the army was composed of fully armoured men with short spears, swords, and figure-of-eight shields. This was an age of heroic warfare, and as such tactics were simple, often no more than a general charge and a lot of killing - it was not rare for entire armies to be chased down and killed after a rout. Some men were charioteers, although Spartans looked down on the chariot as well as the bow as unmanly, testified by the quote: A clay tablet with writing in Linear B from Mycenae. ... A spear is an ancient weapon, used for hunting and war. ... Swiss longsword, 15th or 16th century Look up Sword in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the handheld defensive device. ... Tactics is the collective name for methods of winning a small-scale conflict, performing an optimization, etc. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A rout is a disorderly withdrawal made by a military force following defeat , a collapse of discipline, or poor morale. ... For other uses, see Chariot (disambiguation). ...

It is entirely seemly for a young man killed in battle to lie mangled by the bronze spear. In his death all things appear fair.

– Homer, The Iliad

Menelaus, the king of Sparta who took the Spartans to Troy. He is shown here protecting the body of Patroclus, who died in the last year of the war.

Charioteers were, however, useful as the same poem says that Achilles and other heroes fought from a chariot. Homeric legend and archaeological evidence have portrayed the early soldier as a chariot-mounted warrior who found an enemy army and charged it with his lance or threw a spear, then dismounted and fought on foot^[2] The best soldiers were made into officers and were expected to be heroes and lead from the front.^[3] It was also a Spartan princess who lifted the crown in Olympia when her horse team won. Wrestling was accompanied by pankration, where only biting and eye-gouging were prohibited. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (600 × 800 pixel, file size: 72 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (600 × 800 pixel, file size: 72 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Menelaus regains Helen, detail of an Attic red-figure crater, ca. ... A cup depicting Achilles bandaging Patroklos arm, by the Sosias Painter. ... For other uses, see Achilles (disambiguation). ... The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different pole weapons based on the spear. ... Olympia (Greek: Ολυμπία Olympía or Ολύμπια Olýmpia, older transliterations, Olimpia, Olimbia), a city of ancient Greece in Elis, is known for having been the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, comparable in importance to... Pankration was an ancient sport introduced in the Greek Olympic games in 648 BC. Many historians believe that, although Pankration was not one of the first Olympic sports, it was likely the most popular. ...

Training

At first, in the archaic period of 700-600BC, education, for both sexes, was based on the arts. Additionally for boys, there was military education, providing additional survivability in their career as citizen-warriors. The arts were prominent because of the many religious festivals that were celebrated throughout the year, such as the one which kept the Spartans from intervening at Marathon.^[4] Military education became dominant almost to the point of being exclusive in 550BC when Sparta became a militaristic state.^[5] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Recruit training. ... Combatants Athens, Plataea Persia Commanders Miltiades, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 10,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 - 100,000 a Casualties 192 Athenians killed, 11 Plataeans killed (Herodotus) 6,400 killed, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ...

Children of both sexes were brought up by the city women until age seven, afterwards the girls would be trained to oversee the young boys. They would need to be fit, and were trained with running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and javelins. They would be trained in "Feminine Virtues" such as learning not to show off in nice clothes, which was introduced by forcing them to strip for sports, processions, dances and temple services.^[5] They were however, mostly taught that their role was to serve Sparta through militaristic supremacy.^[5] Boys were organized into mess halls by age, with the toughest boy set as the leader.^[5] The elders who ran the halls would set them upon each other to find out who was the best fighter.^[5] The children would be poorly fed, and told to steal to supplement their rations.^[5] They were bedded on the bare ground, and would only take a few baths a year.^[5] They would be given lessons in the handling of arms and armor. They would be kept under the strict discipline necessary to fight in close formation, and the krypteia or terrorizing and killing the helots to keep them in order and by murdering talented or dissenting slaves, breed a perfect serf class, as well as to build guile and ambush skill. Quoits (k-waits) is a traditional lawn game involving the throwing of a metal or rubber ring over a set distance to land over a pin in the centre of a patch of clay. ... Krypteia or Crypteia (Gr. ... The Helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. ... The Buxton Memorial Fountain, celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, London. ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ...

The training gave boys the three most vital traits of a Spartan:

Toughness 

In Sparta, a weak child would be thrown into a pit as a symbolic rooting out of weakness.^[6] Until age twelve, they would often not be allowed any clothes and then, only a cloak was provided.^[5] Even as soldiers, they only wore a tunic and cloak, and to stay warm they would rub themselves with thistles.^[5] A fictional testament to the toughness of the regime is the tale of the boy and the fox cub, in which a boy steals a fox cub, but is caught by the owner. The owner interrogates the boy, but the boy suddenly drops dead. The owner finds that the fox has eaten the boy's insides. After the age of 18 they would be liable for compulsory military service. Perhaps the greatest example of Spartan toughness/fitness in this regard is the march to Athens in 490; a distance of 140 miles accomplished in less than three days.^[7]

Obedience 

Since birth, a Spartan's entire training curriculum was centered around order and discipline.^[5] Preparation for war was their primary subject, with all subjects of education working to that end.Overall, a Spartan's loyalty was to Sparta, first and foremost.

Fearlessness 

After birth and until the age of 7, when they would be put into the groups and were told to never fear anything. As well, it was taught the greatest honor to be bestowed upon you was a death in the heats of battle. To this, one Spartan mother sent their son off to battle with the wish of ταν ή επί τας (bearing your shield or on it), in other words, "either return victorious or return dead".

Ω ξειν’, αγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ότι τηδε κείμεθα, τοίς κείνων ρήμασι πειθόμενοι Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that here, obedient to their laws, we lie. This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

– Simonides of Ceos, Epitaph on the burial mound of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae^[7] Bold textil8jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjpooSimonides of Ceos (ca. ...

Tactics

The Spartans were a well trained Phalanx army, using the expert tactics of the phalanx which used small numbers as efficiently as possible. Using one is like putting weights on a pulley to lift a weight: If you have one very heavy weight, it offsets two small weights. Quality was the big weight : in Spartan philosophy, Who Needs Numbers? This idea enabled them to do something unprecedented: Fight to the death. They would simply march at the enemy or hold their ground, either way they simply let the spears do the talking. Their style of combat influenced the Thebans and Macedonians. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Thebes (Θῆβαι Thívai) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. ...

Spartan Tactics: The Spartans made full use of the phalanx, a formation composed of many soldiers in close formation with interlocking shields and outstretched spears, in a straight line. This formation was only perfected by Sparta, other cities had difficulty in maintaining the line for long.^[2] This provided an almost impenetrable wall of spears as if one man fell the next soldier in his file would come forward to take his place. The phalanx was almost immobile, however, and the general method of turning was for the front rank, to form a battle-line and raise their pikes to 90 degrees and turn in unison, when the rest of the army would follow suit. Despite this, for hundreds of years wars in Greece were decided by human hedgehogs having a push at each other.^[5] Casualties were often in the realms of 5% as the army would often flee when its leader was impaled on an enemy spear.^[5]

Theban Tactics vs. Sparta: Epaminondas was the first general in Greece to appreciate the supporting value of cavalry.^[5] His army was also heavily reliant on phalanx, but he was capable of winning a battle with his cavalry-intensive oblong advance, which he used to great effect to defeat the Spartans at Leuctra, when he used a line slanted towards the Spartan right with three units in a straight line on the left wing, and cavalry in the left vanguard. The tiny and weak Spartan Cavalry was destroyed in the opening clash and the shock of the charge coupled with the assault of the Phalanx caused the flank to fall back onto the centre, breaking the files and causing the army to degenerate into a useless mob. For information about the modern board game of the same name, see Epaminondas (game). ... Combatants Thebes Sparta Commanders Epaminondas Cleombrotus I † Strength 6,000–7,000 10,000–11,000 Casualties Unknown About 2,000 The Battle of Leuctra is a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies in the neighbourhood of Leuctra, a village in Boeotia in the territory...

Macedonian Tactics under Phillip II and Later: During a Theban war against Macedon, the Theban generals captured the young prince Phillip^[8]. He was a student of Epaminondas' methods in reference to the combination of cavalry, which had been previously almost ignored in Greece due to the relief, and the Phalanx^[8]. Upon his return to Macedon and his ascension to the throne, he set about revolutionising the country's military. He already had in place the Hetaroi or Companion Cavalry élite units, and a light infantry division. He added to these phalangist heavy phalanx infantry with a two-handed pike of 13-21 feet, the Sarissa^[8]. Ancient Macedons regions and towns Macedon or Macedonia (Greek ) was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east. ... Philip II of Spain (Spanish: Felipe II) - (May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598), the first King of Spain understood as the whole peninsula of Hispania (r. ... The Companions (Greek Εταίροι) were Alexander the Greats elite cavalry, the main offensive arm of his army, and also his elite guard. ... The Kataeb Party, better known in English-speaking countries as the Phalange, is a Lebanese political party that was first established as a Maronite nationalist youth movement in 1936 by Pierre Gemayel. ... The sarissa (or sarisa) was a 3 to 7 meter (13-21 feet) long double pointed pike used in the Macedonian phalanx. ...

Arms and Armour

Modern reconstruction of a phalanx showing the equipment of the men.

The Spartans were the only army in Greece to buy the arms and armour for their men. The main arm for the Spartan hoplite was the aspis, often mistakenly referred to as the "hoplon". Sometime during the mid 5th century BC, the Spartans replaced family or contingent based shield designs with the letter lambda (Λ) standing for Laconia, or Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων). In popular culture, the lambda is generally used anachronistically when representing earlier battles such as Thermopylae, or as in the film 300 a Sigma (Σ, σ, or ς at the end of a word) for Σπάρτα Greek for Sparta (Spártā) (actually never used) is erroneously replaced by a Latin S. Image File history File links Greek_Phalanx. ... Image File history File links Greek_Phalanx. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An aspis (Ancient Greek Ασπις, IPA [aspis]) is the generic term for the word shield. ... Laconia (; see also List of traditional Greek place names), also known as Lacedaemonia, is a prefecture in Greece. ... Lacedaemon, or Lakedaimon, Grk. ...

In the Archaic period, Spartans were armoured with flanged bronze breast and back plates, leg greaves, a helmet most often of corinthian or Illyrian style, and sometimes additional armour for the shins, arms and groin. It is often disputed which torso armour the Spartans wore during the Persian Wars, if any, though it seems likely they either continued to wear bronze cuirasses of a more sculptured type, or instead adapted to the composite linothorax style. After this period, Spartiates would often only be lightly armoured with a pylos helmet, and a red tunic. Along with the spear, the Spartiate was always armed with a xiphos as a secondary weapon. During the Peloponnesian War, the sword was shortened to a dagger-like length.^[2] Assorted ancient Bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling. ... A greave (from 12th century French greve shin, of uncertain origin) is a piece of armour that protects the leg. ... Corinthian refers originally to the port of Corinth in Greece Corinthian order, a classical order of ancient Greek and Roman architecture The League of Corinth, a federation of ancient Greek states Several Pauline epistles, books of the New Testament of the Bible: First Epistle to the Corinthians Second Epistle to... Achilles heals Patroclus, since he learned the arts of medicine from his tutor, Chiron. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Composition

The army was divided into files. Each file (enomotia) was commanded by a file leader or enomotarch. Files were joined to form "fifties" or pentekostyes with their own commander, which joined to make Lochi, the smallest tactical units. Next was the mora. It was made up of four lochi led by lochagi. A mora was commanded by a Polemarch and made up a sixth of the army^[2] at about 600 men. On campaign the kings, or only one shortly before the Persian Wars, were the overall commanders of the army.^[9] A mora was an ancient Spartan military unit of about a sixth of the army, at approx. ... A polemarch was one of the magistrates of ancient Athens. ... The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The term can also refer to the continual warfare of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire against the Parthians and...

The army was also divided into 300 of Spartiates - the hippeis or knights and standard hoplites. The knights were a band of 300 elite soldiers that served as a royal guard, with 150 to each king. They fought on foot, as a cavalry elite would have contradicted the all-spartiates-are-equal policy, until 404, when the knights were formed into a cavalry unit. They were selected at age twenty, when they left education. They took part in a contest in 546BC against the Argive knights which they had been set up to balance, and proved themselves to be one of the best forces in Greece, when they took part in the famous last stand at Thermopylae when the other Greeks retreated under orders, killing many times their number. Each year, the five oldest hippeis were made into benefactors. Unlike in the other states benefactors were not financial supporters but policemen, whose job it was to oversee the people in the surrounding areas and deal with any troublemakers, supported by the ephors who declared war on the helots every year to make killing them legal. The army was then subdivided into age groups. The youngest at 20 were counted as weaker due to lack of experience, and the oldest, up to 60 or in a crisis 65, were only called up in an emergency, to defend the baggage train. It was customary for a man in his mid-twenties to marry, and have children. The marriage custom was for the man to pretend to carry off his bride by violence. She would then wear men's clothes and cut her hair short. The man would re-join the army and would have to sneak off to visit his new wife. Over time the number of Spartiates decreased from 6000 in 640 to 1000 in 330BC.^[3]

The Navy

A model of the common trireme.

The Spartan Navy was composed of biremes, with two rows of oars and triremes with three; and were very much a secondary part of the forces, crewed by upper-class helots known as Perioeci in the absence of a lower class citizenry, and not budgeted highly enough to maintain first-class vessels.^[3] They seem to have been a group of transports for the men-of-the-sea Spartans to get from Sparta to war zones as distant as Illium (Troy) in present day Troad, Ionia. During the Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars, the Spartans hardened their rams to ensure that their inferior seamanship, later copied by the Corinthians,^[3] was compensated for.^[2] Download high resolution version (2052x1629, 883 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (2052x1629, 883 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... A Greek trireme. ... A French galley and Dutch men_of_war off a port by Abraham Willaerts, painted 17th century. ... A Greek trireme. ... Former Spartan slaves, now free (possibly from escape). ... For other uses of Troy or Ilion, see Troy (disambiguation) and Ilion (disambiguation). ... Map of the Troas The Troas (Troad) is an ancient region in the northwestern part of Anatolia, bounded by the Hellespont to the northwest, the Aegean Sea to the west, and separated from the rest of Anatolia by the massif that forms Mount Ida. ... Location of Ionia Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also list of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir,) on the Aegean Sea. ... “Athenian War” redirects here. ... Combatants Sparta, Peloponnesian League Athens, Argos, Corinth, Thebes, and other allies Commanders Agesilaus and others Numerous The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states; Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos; which were initially backed by... Corinth, or Korinth (Greek: Κόρινθος, Kórinthos; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city-state, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. ...

The fleet is believed to have grown rapidly during the Peloponnesian War when the Ionians paid the Spartans in wood, gold, iron and ships to leave their islands. This meant that Sparta could now threaten Pericles' strategy of naval harassment. Pericles or Perikles (ca. ...

Rise to power

The Spartans were very powerful in the days when the only power in Greece was the hoplite. They conquered Messenia and in doing so established a strong foothold in Greece. They gained prestige for their heroic effort at Thermopylae, however the Athenians took more from the victories at Salamis and Marathon, marking the two states out as rivals. The Peloponnesian War was the clash of arms which saw Sparta supreme. Owing to the military power of the state they dominated Greece with their many allies including Corinth and Thebes.^[5] Messenia (Greek: , in Modern Greek Messinia; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Combatants Athens, Plataea Persia Commanders Miltiades, Callimachus â€ , Arimnestus Datis â€ ?, Artaphernes Strength 10,000 Athenians, 1,000 Plataeans 20,000 - 100,000 a Casualties 192 Athenians killed, 11 Plataeans killed (Herodotus) 6,400 killed, 7 ships captured (Herodotus) a These are modern consensus estimates. ... Thebes (Demotic Greek: Θήβα — Thíva; Katharevousa: — Thêbai or Thívai) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. ...

In the 540s, the Oracle of Delphi urged Croesus of Lydia to seek out the most powerful of the Greeks to aid him in defeating the Persians. He had little hesitation in coming to Lacedaemon, a tribute to the Spartans and a snub to their rival Argos.^[8] Around 546, when Lydia was crumbling, the Spartans marched. Not against Persia, as their ally had asked, but against Argos. This strange move can be attributed to two factors, the famous Spartan conservativism, and the Argive challenge to 300 Spartans to meet the same number of Argives on the field of war.^[8] The hippeis were dispatched, and by the end of the day three warriors stood- two Argives and a solitary Spartan. The Argives claimed victory and returned in triumph, whilst their rival, very much alive, accused them of abandoning the field.^[8] Within a week the entire army of Sparta had arrived to back up their champion, and they took and enslaved Argos. This may have strengthened the state in the short term, but Lydia fell and Cyrus looked covetously over the sea. Cyrus however, recognised that he could not take Greece.^[8] The word Sibyl comes (via Latin) from the ancient Greek word sibylla, meaning prophetess. ... Croesus (the traditional transliteration of the Greek Kροισος), who was legendary for his enormous wealth, was king of Lydia from 560 BC until his defeat by the Persians in about 547 BC. He was the son of Alyattes and continued his fathers policy... Coordinates 37°37′ N 22°43′ E Country Greece Periphery Peloponnese Prefecture Argolis Province Argos Population 29,505 Area 5. ... Lydia (Greek ) is a historic region of western Anatolia, congruent with Turkeys modern provinces of Ä°zmir and Manisa. ... Argos (Greek: Άργος, Árgos) is a city in Greece in the Peloponnesus near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor, named for Nauplius. ...

In 500, the situation changed as Aristagoras, the Persian tyrant of Miletos in Ionia, raised the support of his uncle Artaphernes, to attack Naxos.^[8] The ships came from Sardis and Aristagoras had contacts in the Naxian Aristocracy, who were enduring a civil war.^[8] All went well until Aristagoras fell out with the commander of the expedition, who was a Satrap. News of this reached Sardis and the Satrap there resolved publicly to depose Aristagoras.^[8] At the same time, his Father-in-law Histiaeus in Greece, a supporter of democracy, encouraged Aristagoras to rebel.^[10] He heeded this, and resigned his post and traveled to the Spartan city of Gytheion to ask for aid.^[8] The monarchist Spartans refused, and Aristagoras instead went to Athens and her ally, Eretria, who sent an army to aid the democratic revolt.^[8] Aristagoras gained enough support that he could utilise his army to burn Sardis itself. Unfortunately, he failed to prevent the temples, famous for testicle-hacking rituals, from burning and so fled into the mountains, where as ill fate would have it there was waiting as Persian relief force.^[8] The rebels were defeated, with casualties including the Eretrian commander.^[8] The allies withdrew and Aristagoras traveled to his Father-in-law's land in Thrace. Unfortunately, he was not well received as he tried to conquer the surrounding area to make an empire, and was killed in battle ending the Ionian Revolt.^[8] Aristagoras was the leader of Miletus in the late 6th century BC and early 5th century BC. He was the son of Molpagoras, and son_in_law (and nephew) of Histiaeus, whom the Persians had set up as tyrant of Miletus. ... The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the old Persian homeland, and beyond in Western Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. ... In Greek mythology, Miletus was the founder of the city described below. ... Artaphernes, more correctly Artaphrenes, was the brother of Darius Hystaspis, and satrap of Sardis. ... Naxos (Greek: Νάξος; Italian: Nicsia; Turkish: NakÅŸa) is a Greek island, the largest island (428 km²) in the Cyclades island group in the Aegean. ... A recent view of the ceremonial court of the thermae–gymnasium complex in Sardis, dated to 211—212 AD Sardis, also Sardes (Lydian: Sfard, Greek: Σάρδεις, Persian: Sparda), modern Sart in the Manisa province of Turkey, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, the seat of a proconsul under... Look up satrap in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Histiaeus (died 494 BC), the son of Lysagoras, was the tyrant of Miletus in the late 6th century BC. Histiaeus owed his status as tyrant to Darius I, king of Persia, who had subjugated Miletus and the other Ionian states in Asia Minor. ... Gytheio is a town of Laconia in Greece, long known as the seaport of Sparta some 30 miles inland. ... This is an article about the Greek city of Eretria. ... Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak  Thrace (Bulgarian: , Greek: , Attic Greek: ThrāíkÄ“ or ThrēíkÄ“, Latin: , Turkish: ) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. ... The Ionian Revolts were triggered by the actions of Aristagoras, the tyrant of the Ionian city of Miletus at the end of the 6th century BC and the beginning of the 5th century BC. They constituted the first major conflict between Greece and Persia. ...

The revolt may have been over, but the war was not. In 490 Darius I sent a Persian force which crossed to Greece and was promptly defeated by an Athenian-Plataean alliance at Marathon. This showed how deadly Greek troops were, as the 10,000 allies only took 192 casualties,^[7] owing to their heavy armour and weapons, which the lighter eastern warriors could not defeat. His son Xerxes tried again in 480, sending an army of 300,000 across the Hellespont. He timed the invasion to coincide with the festival of Apollo in Sparta and the Olympic Games.^[8] This meant that the allied Greeks only numbered 10,000 with 4000 in the pass of Thermopylae, including 400 unwilling Thebans and the famous Spartan hippeis of 300, along with 1000 Thespians.^[8] The army was commanded by Leonidas I and Demophilius of Thespiae. The allies knew of a goat path only traversable by infantry such as the Persians', but owing to lack of manpower only 400 inexperienced Tegeans were dispatched, without a Spartan officer. The allies disdained surrender and fought for a week, when a local traitor told Xerxes of the goat path, which most of the army used.^[8] All of the army except the hippeis, 100 Thespians and 400 Thebans were ordered to retreat, and the aforementioned rearguard was slaughtered.^[8] Seal of Darius I, showing the king hunting on his chariot, and the symbol of Ahuramazda Darius the Great (Pers. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Xerxes may refer to these Persian kings: Xerxes I, reigned 485–465 BC, also known as Xerxes the Great. ... The Helespont/Dardanelles, a long narrow strait dividing the Balkans (Europe) along the Gallipoli peninsula from Asia Anatolia (Asia Minor). ... For other uses, see Apollo (disambiguation). ... Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games (Greek: ; Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of athletic competitions held between various city-states of Ancient Greece. ... For other uses, see Leonidas (disambiguation). ... There is also an ancient Tegea near Kissamos in the island of Crete, see Tegea, Crete Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greek containing the Temple of Athena Alea. ...

Xerxes proceeded to take his army to the very heart of Greece burning Athens, including the sacred Acropolis. At this time, General Themistocles consulted the oracle to get the response Put your faith in a wooden wall. Some Athenians proceeded to fortify the acropolis with timber, while Themistocles put his trust in the allied navy and the 300 ships of Athens. He was proved right and the fleet won decisively at Salamis. The Spartans led the force that drove the Persians back to Ionia, culminating in the battle of Plataea in which the Spartans had 45,000 men under the command of Pausanias, 10,000 Spartans (including Spartiates, Perioikoi and helots), and 35,000 Athenians and other Greek allies; this was the largest single Spartan fighting force ever to appear in battle.^[8] Pausanius gave a famous speech before the battle, which ended Acropolis (Gr. ... Themistocles (Greek: ; c. ... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius † Strength 100,000 (Pompeius) 110,000 (Herodotus) 38,000 (Modern Consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) 70,000-120,000 [1][2][3] (Modern Consensus) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 159 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) The Battle of Plataea... Pausanias (Greek = Παυσανίας) was a Spartan general of the 5th century BCE. He was the nephew of Leonidas I and served as regent after his uncles death, as Leonidas son, Pleistarchus was still under-age. ...

If The Mede feared 300 of us Spartans at the Gates of Thermopylae imagine what he thinks of 10,000 of us here!

– Pausanias Pausanias (Greek = Παυσανίας) was a Spartan general of the 5th century BCE. He was the nephew of Leonidas I and served as regent after his uncles death, as Leonidas son, Pleistarchus was still under-age. ...

The battle was won, and Greece was saved from the Persian threat, though the war continued in Ionia. Sparta and Athens headed the alliance (known as the Delian League) that later forced Xerxes to retreat from all of the Greek territories. Because of this, a rivalry developed between the two states of Sparta and Athens. Delian League (Athenian Empire), right before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC. Corcyra was not part of the League The Delian League was an association of Greek city-states in the 5th century BC. It was led by Athens. ...

The quote of Leonidas I at Thermopylae- Μολὼν λαβέ! (molon labe!)-Come and get them! It is the motto of the Greek First Army Corps

The Athenians decided to preserve the alliance, and wanted to lead it. The Spartans had the same ambition.^[8] This led to the Peloponnesian war between Alcibiades of Athens, and Lysander the Spartan. Alcibiades had powerful enemies before the war, and during it they plotted his death. At the end of his Sicilian Expedition he was accused of sacrilege. Rather than go to trial, the general went to Sparta and betrayed the Athenian army's secrets. When the Spartans won battles with his advice they assassinated him to prevent his return to Athens. Sparta had and retained the upper hand for over 20 years of otherwise one-sided war, and claimed victory in 404. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (2560 × 1920 pixel, file size: 1. ... For other uses, see Leonidas (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Battle of Thermopylae (disambiguation). ... The words MOLON LABE (ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ) in Greek as they are inscribed on the marble of the modern era monument at Thermopylae. ... Hellenic Army - I Army Corps // The motto at the top of the emblem, Μολών Λαβέ, means Come and take them. ... Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (Greek: ; English /ælsɪbaɪədi:z/; 450 BC–404 BC), also transliterated as Alkibiades, was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. ... Lysander (d. ... The Sicilian Expedition was an Athenian expedition to Sicily from 415 BC to 413 BC, during the Peloponnesian War. ...

Decline

In 404, after 27 years of war, the Peloponnesian War ended and Sparta was the centre of a more divided Greece than ever. Would Sparta, victorious but weakened, succeed where Athens had failed? Sparta had lacked the imagination and peacetime capability of the democratic Athenians, but Athens had never been able to stick to a long term strategy.^[5] Fortunately for the city, they were devoted to a Spartan alliance, whereas the Spartans had split into two factions lead by the general Lysander and the king Pausanias, perhaps jealous of his rival but aware that Lysander's wish of the destruction of Athens would create a dangerous imbalance of power in Greece. Sparta's allies, Corinth and Thebes, sided with Lysander. The Spartans did not go so far, but the terms were nevertheless severe. Athens kept Attica and Salamis but had to surrender its fleet and demolish the fortifications of Piraeus, its port. Further, the city was to raze the long walls that defended it, abandon all foreign possessions and recall the exiles. It also concluded a defensive and offensive alliance with Sparta, by joining the Peloponnesian League. It has been suggested that Kaminia (Piraeus), Greece be merged into this article or section. ... The Long Walls generally refers to the walls connecting Athens to its port at Piraeus which were constructed in the mid 5th century BC, destroyed by the Spartans in 404 BC after Athens defeat in the Peloponnesian War, and rebuilt again with Persian support during the Corinthian War. ... The Peloponnesian League was an alliance of states in the Peloponnese in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. By the end of the 6th century, Sparta had become the most powerful state in the Peloponnese, and was the political and military hegemon over Argos, the next most powerful state. ...

The first signs of Sparta beginning to crumble showed in 390 when an Athenian general, Iphicrates, used an elite group of peltasts to destroy a mora. This was significant as the Spartans had always considered peltasts to be inferior to the Phalanx but Iphicrates had shown the Greeks that Sparta could be defeated. Iphicrates (d. ...

Despite Sparta's penalties to Athens, Thebes was not satisfied. This coupled with anger at the Corinthian War led to it beginning secret plottings with Sparta's enemies to exploit the state's one weakness- during the war Sparta had failed to move with the times and absorb Iphicrates' methods. In one battle, at Leuctra in 371, they defeated Sparta. Combatants Sparta, Peloponnesian League Athens, Argos, Corinth, Thebes, and other allies Commanders Agesilaus and others Numerous The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states; Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos; which were initially backed by...

Sparta did break away from the Thebans, and once again took up their position as defenders of Greece, and Greek wit. When Phillip II came into Greece he sent a message to the Spartans: εάν εισάγω Λακεδαεμον επίπεδο Σπάρτα στο έδαφος! ("If I enter Lacedaemon I will level Sparta to the ground!") to which the Spartans replied εάν (If).^[11] When Alexander the Great of Macedon asked for aid against Persia, predictably Sparta refused, to which Alexander responded by sending back 300 curaisses, the number synonymous with Sparta, and the message: For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Ancient Macedons regions and towns Macedon or Macedonia (Greek ) was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northern-most part of ancient Greece, bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east. ... This article is devoted to the type of armour known as a cuirass. ...

Alexander son of Philip, and the Greeks - except the Spartans - from the barbarians living in Asia^[12]

– Alexander the Great, Battle at Granicus, 355 BC Combatants Macedon Greek allies Persia Greek mercenaries Commanders Alexander the Great Spithridates, Mithridates, Memnon of Rhodes, other Strength 5,000 cavalry 26,000 infantry 15,000 cavalry 12,000 Persian infantry 4-5,000 Greek mercenaries Casualties Between 100-200 4,000 killed 2,000 captured {{{notes}}} The Battle of...

When Alexander's empire fell the Greeks, although nominally Macedonian, became independent. Sparta continued to be independent and under Cleomenes III, the army revived and gained control of most of the Peloponnese for Sparta. However, the Spartans were in turn defeated by the Macedonians with help from the Achean League in 222 BC at the Battle of Sellasia. The Spartan army and navy once again was reformed under Nabis but following Sparta's defeated during the War against Nabis it fell into disrepair. Cleomenes III was the son of Leonidas II. In keeping with the Spartan agoge and the native pederastic tradition he was the hearer (aites) of Xenares and later the inspirer (eispnelos) of Panteus. ... // Antigonus Doson and the Hellenic League with Cleomenes III The Battle of Sellasia was a war that took place in 222 BC between the armies of Antigonus III Doson, King of Macedonia and Cleomenes III, King of Sparta, the Spartan Forces were massacred and Cleomenes fled to Egypt. ... Nabis was the last king of Sparta. ... Combatants Sparta, Doric Cretans, Argos Rome, Achean League, Macedon, Pergamum, Rhodes Commanders Nabis, Pythagoras, Dexagoridas, Gorgopas Titus Quinctius Flaminius, Eumenes II of Pergamum, Aristaenos Strength 30,000+[1] ~50,000,[2] 98 ships Greece and the Aegean on the eve of the Second Macedonian War The War against Nabis or...

In 189 BC, Sparta was incorporated into the Achean League which now controlled most of the Peloponnese. How, Sparta broke off from the Achean League in 147 BC and this move triggered the war which ended with Rome defeating and destroying the Achean League as well as conquering the Peloponnese. The Romans however, allowed Sparta to remain a "free" city-state.

Famous Battles Fought

Note the Spartan convention of naming wars: They were named after the enemy, so Persian Wars means the war against the Persians. Actually, however, in Sparta the Persian Wars were named "The Median Events" as the Greeks named this war as a series of happenings. Mede nobility. ...

The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. The term can also refer to the continual warfare of the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire against the Parthians and... For other uses, see Battle of Thermopylae (disambiguation). ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Eurybiades of Sparta Themistocles of Athens Adeimantus of Corinth Unknown Strength 333 ships 500 ships Casualties Half of Fleet (Herodotus) Unknown The naval Battle of Artemisium took place, according to tradition, on the same day as the Battle of Thermopylae on August 11, 480... For other uses, see Battle of Salamis (disambiguation). ... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Pausanias Mardonius † Strength 100,000 (Pompeius) 110,000 (Herodotus) 38,000 (Modern Consensus) 300,000 (Herodotus) 70,000-120,000 [1][2][3] (Modern Consensus) Casualties 10,000+ (Ephorus and Diodorus) 1,360 (Plutarch) 159 (Herodotus) 43,000 survived (Herodotus) The Battle of Plataea... Combatants Greek city-states Persia Commanders Leotychides Artaÿntes Strength About 40,000 60,000 men, 300 ships Casualties 40,000 The Battle of Mycale, Greek Μάχη Μυκάλης, Mache tes Mycales , was one of the two major battles that ended the Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greco-Persian Wars. ... Athenian War, the Spartan name for this conflict, redirects here. ... Battle of Sybota Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 433 BC Place Off Corcyra Result Indecisive The Battle of Sybota took place in 433 BC between Corcyra and Corinth. ... Battle of Potidaea Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 432 BC Place Potidaea Result Athenian victory The Battle of Potidaea was, with the Battle of Sybota, one of the catalysts for the Peloponnesian War. ... Battle of Chalcis Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 429 BC Place Chalcis Result Athenian defeat The Battle of Chalcis took place in 429 BC between Athens and the Chalcidians and their allies, in the early part of the Peloponnesian War. ... Combatants Athens Sparta, Corinth, and other members of the Peloponnesian League Commanders Phormio Machaon, Isocrates, Agatharchidas, and others Strength 20 triremes 47 triremes, some being used as transports Casualties None 12 ships captured, with most of their crews The Battle of Rhium (429 BC) was a naval battle in the... Battle of Naupactus Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 429 BC Place Off Naupactus Result Athenian victory The Battle of Naupactus was a naval battle between the Athenian fleet under Phormio and a combined Spartan and Corinthian fleet. ... The Battle of Mytilene may refer to: Battle of Mytilene (406 BC), fought between Athens and Sparta Battle of Mytilene (427 BC), fought between Mytilene and Athens Category: ... There were two Battles of Tanagra of importance in ancient Greek history. ... Battle of Olpae Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 426 BC Place Olpae Result Athenian victory The Battle of Olpae was a battle of the Peloponnesian War in 426 BC, between armies led by Athens and Sparta. ... Combatants Athens Sparta Commanders Demosthenes Thrasymelidas Brasidas Strength 50 ships Hundreds of troops 60 ships Unknown troops Casualties Unknown Unknown The Battle of Pylos took place in 425 BC during the Peloponnesian War, between Athens and Sparta. ... Combatants Athens Sparta Commanders Demosthenes Cleon Epitadas† Styphon Strength About 3000 440 Casualties Very few (about 230) 148 The Battle of Sphacteria was a battle of the Peloponnesian War in 425 BC, between Athens and Sparta. ... The Battle of Delium took place in 424 BC between the Athenians and the Boeotians, and ended with the siege of Delium in the following weeks. ... Combatants Athens Sparta Commanders Cleon† Nicias Thucydides Brasidas† Clearidas Strength About 2000 About 2500 Casualties About 600 8 {{{notes}}} The Battle of Amphipolis was fought in 422 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. ... Several important battles in ancient Greek history were fought at Mantinea: Battle of Mantinea (418 BC) Battle of Mantinea (362 BC) Battle of Mantinea (207 BC) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Sicilian Expedition was an Athenian expedition to Sicily from 415 BC to 413 BC, during the Peloponnesian War. ... Battle of Syme Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 411 BC Place Off Syme Result Indecisive The Battle of Syme was a naval battle in 411 BC between Sparta and Athens, during the Peloponnesian War. ... Battle of Cynossema Conflict Peloponnesian War Date 411 BC Place Off Cynossema Result Athenian victory The Battle of Cynossema was a naval battle in the Hellespont in 411 BC between Athens and Sparta, around the same time the Athenian democracy was overthrown in favour of a short_lived oligarchy. ... Battle of Abydos (410 BC) Battle of Abydos (322 BC) Battle of Abydos (200 BC) Battle of Abydos (989) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Battle of Cyzicus in 410 BC was a small-scale naval battle during the Peloponnesian War between an Athenian fleet led by Alcibiades and a Peloponnesian fleet led by Sparta. ... Combatants Sparta Athens Commanders Lysander Antiochus Strength 70 ships 80 ships Casualties none 22 ships Th Battle of Notium (or Ephesus) in 406 BC, was a Spartan naval victory in the Peloponnesian War. ... Combatants Sparta Athens Commanders Callicratidas† 8 generals Strength 120 ships 155 ships Casualties 70 ships 25 ships The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War just east of the island of Lesbos. ... Combatants Sparta Athens Commanders Lysander 6 generals Strength Unknown 170 ships Casualties Minimal 160 Ships, Thousands of sailors The naval Battle of Aegospotami took place in 404 BC and was the last major battle of the Peloponnesian War. ... Combatants Sparta, Peloponnesian League Athens, Argos, Corinth, Thebes, and other allies Commanders Agesilaus and others Numerous The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states; Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos; which were initially backed by... The Battle of Haliartus was fought in 395 BC between Sparta and Thebes. ... Combatants Sparta Thebes Argos Athens Corinth Commanders Aristodemus Unknown Strength 18,000 hopites 24,000 hoplites Casualties 1,100 dead or wounded 2,800 dead or wounded {{{notes}}} The Battle of Nemea (394 BC) was a battle in the Corinthian War, between Sparta and the allied cities of Argos, Athens... Combatants Persia Sparta Commanders Conon and Pharnabazus Peisander Strength 90 triremes 85 triremes Casualties Minimal Entire fleet At the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC), the Persian fleet, led by the former Athenian admiral Conon, utterly destroyed the Spartan fleet led by the inexperienced Peisander, ending Spartas brief bid for... The Battle of Coronea can refer to: Battle of Coronea (447 BC) Battle of Coronea (394 BC) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Combatants Athens Sparta Commanders Iphicrates Unknown Strength Unknown, but force composed almost entirely of peltasts. ... Combatants Thebes Sparta Commanders Epaminondas Cleombrotus I † Strength 6,000–7,000 10,000–11,000 Casualties Unknown About 2,000 The Battle of Leuctra is a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies in the neighbourhood of Leuctra, a village in Boeotia in the territory...

In Popular Culture

• Adolf Hitler considered Sparta to be the first National Socialist state, and praised its early eugenics treatment of deformed children.^[13][14][15]
• 300, a movie and comic devoted to Thermopylae
• Spartan, a PC game developed by Slitherine
• In the Halo video game series, genetically-enhanced super-soldiers are named Spartan-IIs, named after the Spartan Army.

Hitler redirects here. ... Sparta (Doric: Spártā, Attic: Spártē) is a city in southern Greece. ... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... 300 is a 2007 film adaptation of the graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller, and is a fictionalized retelling of the Battle of Thermopylae. ... 300 is a historically-inspired comic book limited series (later collected into a single hardcover volume) written and illustrated by Frank Miller with painted colors by Lynn Varley. ... Spartan is a computer game developed by Slitherine Software in 2004. ... It has been suggested that Covenant Vehicles in Halo be merged into this article or section. ... “Computer and video games” redirects here. ... The SPARTAN II supersoldier project is part of the fictional Halo universe storyline. ...

Notes and References

1. ^ Connoly, Peter. The Greek Armies. MacDonald Educational Ltd.. ISBN 0356055809. “It was accepted that each Spartan was worth ten of any other state” 
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Connoly, Peter. The Greek Armies. MacDonald Educational Ltd.. ISBN 0356055809. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Lane Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. ISBN 0465024963. 
4. ^ Black, Jeremy. "1 (Marathon)", The Seventy Greatest Battles of All Time. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0500251258. 
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o} Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition
6. ^
7. ^ ^{a b c} Herodotus. The Histories. 
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u} Holland, Tom. Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Anchor. ISBN 0307279480. 
9. ^ Xenophon
10. ^ Singh, Simon. The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Anchor. ISBN 0385495323. 
11. ^ Europe: a History - Norman Davies
12. ^ "The Genius of Alexander the Great", Nicholas G. Hammond, p. 69
13. ^ Hitler, Adolf (1961). Hitler's Secret Book (HTML) (English). New York: Grove Press. “Sparta must be regarded as the first völkisch state. The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more human than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject.”
14. ^ http://republic-news.org/archive/171-repub/171_nenonen_300.htm
15. ^ http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094%28196804%293%3A2%3C193%3AOSEOTN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage

The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Hērodotos Halikarnāsseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ...

See also

• The 70 Great Battles of All Time
• Encyclopædia Britannica
• The Spartans by Paul Cartledge
• The Groovy Greeks by Terry Deary
• The Classical World by Robin Lane Fox
• The Code Book by Simon Singh
• Spartiates
• History of Sparta
• Military history of Ancient Greece