Spinosaurus Fossil range: mid Cretaceous
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Sauropsida Superorder: Dinosauria Order: Saurischia Suborder: Theropoda Family: Spinosauridae Subfamily: Spinosaurinae Genus: Spinosaurus Stromer, 1915
Species
S. aegyptiacus Stromer, 1915 (type) ?S. marocannus Russell, 1996 // The Cretaceous Period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period (i. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For other uses, see Scientific classification (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Typical Classes See below Chordates (phylum Chordata) are a group of animals that includes the vertebrates, together with several closely related invertebrates. ... Reptilia redirects here. ... Orders & Suborders Saurischia Sauropodomorpha Theropoda Ornithischia Thyreophora Ornithopoda Marginocephalia Dinosaurs were vertebrate animals that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. ... Groups Sauropodomorpha    Saturnalia    Prosauropoda    Sauropoda Theropoda    Eoraptor    Herrerasauridae    Ceratosauria    Tetanurae       Aves(extant) Saurischians (from the Greek Saurischia meaning lizard hip) are one of the two orders/branches of dinosaurs. ... Subdivisions ?Eoraptor Herrerasauria Coelophysoidea Ceratosauria Cryolophosaurus Spinosauridae Carnosauria Coelurosauria Theropods (beast foot) are a group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs. ... Subfamilies Baryonychinae Charig & Milner, 1986 Spinosaurinae Stromer, 1915 (type) Spinosauridae is a family of unusual theropod dinosaurs. ... Subfamilies Spinosaurinae Stromer, 1915 Baryonychinae Charig & Milner, 1986 Spinosauridae is a family of unusual theropod dinosaurs. ... Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (12 June 1870 — 18 December 1952) was a German palaeontologist. ... For other uses, see Species (disambiguation). ... In zoological nomenclature, a type is a specimen or a taxon. ... Dale A. Russell is a geologist/palaeontologist, currently Research Professor at The Department of Marine Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (MEAS) of North Carolina State University. ...

Spinosaurus (meaning "spine lizard") is a genus of theropod dinosaur which lived in what is now North Africa, from the Albian to early Cenomanian stages of the Cretaceous Period, about 100 to 93 million years ago. This genus was first known from Egyptian remains discovered in the 1910s and described by German paleontologist Ernst Stromer. These original remains were destroyed in World War II, but additional skull material has come to light in recent years. It is unclear whether one or two species are represented in the described fossils. The best known species is S. aegyptiacus from Egypt, although a potential second species, S. marocannus, has been recovered from Morocco. For other uses, see Genus (disambiguation). ... Subdivisions ?Eoraptor Herrerasauria Coelophysoidea Ceratosauria Cryolophosaurus Spinosauridae Carnosauria Coelurosauria Theropods (beast foot) are a group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs. ... Orders & Suborders Saurischia Sauropodomorpha Theropoda Ornithischia Thyreophora Ornithopoda Marginocephalia Dinosaurs were vertebrate animals that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. ...  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ... Albian (Fr. ... The Cenomanian (also known as Woodbinian) is the first stage of the Late Cretaceous Epoch. ... Faunal stages are a subdivision of geologic time used primarily by paleontologists who study fossils rather than by geologists who study rock formations. ... // The Cretaceous Period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period (i. ... A geologic period is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an era into smaller timeframes. ... Annum is a Latin noun meaning year. ... Paleontology, palaeontology or palæontology (from Greek: paleo, ancient; ontos, being; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. ... Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (12 June 1870 — 18 December 1952) was a German palaeontologist. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

The distinctive "spines" of Spinosaurus, which were long extensions of the vertebrae, grew up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) long and were likely to have had skin connecting them, forming a sail-like structure, although some authors have suggested that they were covered in muscle and formed a hump or ridge. Multiple functions have been put forward for this structure, including thermoregulation and display. According to recent estimates, Spinosaurus is the largest of all known carnivorous dinosaurs, even larger than Tyrannosaurus rex and Giganotosaurus. These estimates suggest that it was around 16 to 18 meters in length (52.5 to 59.1 ft) and 9 tonnes (9.9 tons) in weight,^[1] although these figures have not been universally accepted. A diagram of a thoracic vertebra. ... This article is about the unit of length. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when temperature surrounding is very different. ... Carnivorism redirects here. ... Species T. rex (type) Osborn, 1905 Synonyms Manospondylus Cope, 1892 Dynamosaurus Osborn, 1905  ?Nanotyrannus Bakker, Williams & Currie, 1988 Stygivenator Olshevsky, 1995 Dinotyrannus Olshevsky, 1995 Tyrannosaurus (pronounced IPA: , meaning tyrant lizard) is a genus of theropod dinosaur. ... Species G. carolinii Coria & Salgado, 1995 (type) Giganotosaurus (meaning giant southern lizard, derived from the Ancient Greek gigas/γιγας meaning giant, notos/νοτος meaning south wind and saurus/σαυρος meaning lizard)[1] was a genus of carcharodontosaurid dinosaur that lived 93 to 89 million years ago during the Turonian stage of the Late... This article is about the unit of length. ... A foot (plural: feet or foot;[1] symbol or abbreviation: ft or, sometimes, ′ – a prime) is a unit of length, in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... A tonne (also called metric ton) is a non-SI unit of mass, accepted for use with SI, defined as: 1 tonne = 103 kg (= 106 g). ... The short ton is a unit of mass equal to 907. ...

Description

Spinosaurus based on the 2005 dal Sasso reconstruction

Although Spinosaurus is well-known to dinosaur enthusiasts due to its size, sail, and elongated skull, it is mostly known from remains that have been destroyed, aside from a few more recently discovered teeth and skull elements. Additionally, so far only the skull and backbone have been described in detail, and limb bones have not been found. Jaw and skull material published in 2005 show that it had one of the longest skulls of any carnivorous dinosaur, estimated at about 1.75 meters long (5.75 ft). The skull had a narrow snout filled with straight conical teeth that lacked serrations. There were six or seven teeth on each side of the very front of the upper jaw, in the premaxilla bones, and another twelve in both maxillae behind them. The second and third teeth on each side were noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth in the premaxilla, creating a space between them and the large teeth in the anterior maxilla; large teeth in the lower jaw faced this space. The very tip of the snout holding those few large anterior teeth was expanded, and a small crest was present in front of the eyes.^[1] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 446 pixelsFull resolution (2000 × 1114 pixel, file size: 780 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 446 pixelsFull resolution (2000 × 1114 pixel, file size: 780 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... The premaxilla is a pair of small bones at the very tip of the jaws of many animals, usually bearing teeth, but not always. ... The maxillae are the largest bones of the face, except for the mandible, and form, by their union, the whole of the upper jaw. ... In sciences dealing with the anatomy of animals, precise anatomical terms of location are necessary for a variety of reasons. ...

The sail of Spinosaurus was formed of very tall neural spines growing on the back vertebrae. These spines were seven to eleven times the height of the vertebrae from which they grew.^[2] The spines were slightly longer front to back at the base than higher up, and were unlike the thin rods seen in the pelycosaur finbacks Edaphosaurus and Dimetrodon. A diagram of a thoracic vertebra. ... A diagram of a thoracic vertebra. ... Groups see text The pelycosaurs (from Greek pelyx meaning bowl and sauros meaning lizard) were primitive Late Paleozoic synapsid amniotes. ... Edaphosaurus was much like the Dimetrodon but ate plants and screeched in a high pitched tone that often sounded like Boris, dont touch me there! ... Species Dimetrodon grandis skeleton at the National Museum of Natural History Dimetrodon () (two measures of teeth), was a predatory synapsid (mammal-like reptile) genus that flourished during the Permian Period, living between 280 and 265 million years ago. ...

Classification

Spinosaurus gives its name to a family of dinosaurs, the Spinosauridae, of which other members include Baryonyx from southern England, Irritator and Angaturama (which is probably synonymous with Irritator) from Brazil, Suchomimus from Niger in central Africa, and possibly Siamosaurus, which is known from fragmentary remains in Thailand. Spinosaurus is closest to Irritator, which shares its unserrated straight teeth, and the two are included in the subfamily Spinosaurinae.^[3] In 2003, Oliver Rauhut suggested that Stromer's Spinosaurus holotype was a chimera, composed of back vertebrae from a carcharodontosaurid similar to Acrocanthosaurus and a dentary from a large theropod similar to Baryonyx.^[4] This analysis, however, has been rejected in recent papers.^[3][1] The hierarchy of scientific classification In biological classification, family (Latin: familia, plural familiae) is a rank, or a taxon in that rank. ... Subfamilies Baryonychinae Charig & Milner, 1986 Spinosaurinae Stromer, 1915 (type) Spinosauridae is a family of unusual theropod dinosaurs. ... Binomial name Baryonyx walkeri Charig & Milner, 1986 Baryonyx // meaning heavy claw, referring to its large claw (Greek barus meaning heavy and onyx meaning claw or nail) was a carnivorous dinosaur discovered in clay pits just south of Dorking, England, and northern Spain. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Irritator challengeri is a dinosaur related to Spinosaurus. ... Binomial name Angaturama limai Kellner & Campos, 1996 Angaturama (AHN-gah-too-RAH-ma - (Tupi Indian) angaturama meaning noble, brave) is a spinosaurid theropod from the Early Cretaceous Santana Formation of northeastern Brazil. ... Binomial name Suchomimus tenerensis Sereno , 1998 Suchomimus (crocodile mimic) was a large spinosaurid dinosaur with a crocodile-like mouth that lived 110 to 120 million years ago, during the middle portion of the Cretaceous period in Africa. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... ... A holotype is one of several possible types. ... In paleontology, a chimera is a fossil which was reconstructed with elements coming from more than a single species (or genus) of animal. ... Genera Neovenator Acrocanthosaurus Carcharodontosaurus Mapusaurus Tyrannotitan Giganotosaurus Carcharodontosaurids (from the Greek Carcharodontosauros: shark-toothed lizards) were a group of carnivorous theropod dinosaurs. ... Binomial name Acrocanthosaurus atokensis Stovall & Langston, 1950 Acrocanthosaurus (pronunciation: ak-ro-KAN-tho-SAWR-us; meaning: high-spined lizard) is a genus of carnosaurian theropod dinosaur from the mid-Cretaceous Period of North America. ... The dentary is the tooth bearing bone of the lower jaw. ... Binomial name Baryonyx walkeri Charig & Milner, 1986 Baryonyx // meaning heavy claw, referring to its large claw (Greek barus meaning heavy and onyx meaning claw or nail) was a carnivorous dinosaur discovered in clay pits just south of Dorking, England, and northern Spain. ...

Discovery and species

The first described remains of Spinosaurus were found in the Bahariya Valley of Egypt in 1912, and were named by German paleontologist Ernst Stromer in 1915.^[5] Fragmentary additional remains from Bahariya, including vertebrae and hindlimb bones, were designated by Stromer as "Spinosaurus B" in 1934.^[6] Stromer considered them different enough to belong to another species, and this has been borne out; with the advantage of more expeditions and material, it appears that they either pertain to Carcharodontosaurus^[7] or to Sigilmassasaurus.^[8] Some of the Spinosaurus fossils were damaged during transport back to the Deutsches Museum, in Munich, Germany, and the remaining bones were completely lost due to Allied bombing in 1944.^[1] El Waha el Bahariya (Arabic: الواحة البحرية), (meaning the sea-oasis) is an oasis in Egypt. ... Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (12 June 1870 — 18 December 1952) was a German palaeontologist. ... Species C. saharicus (Depéret & Savornin, 1927) (type) Carcharodontosaurus (/kɑː.kɑː.ɹə.ˈdÉ’n. ... Binomial name Sigilmassasaurus brevicollis Russell, 1996 Sigilmassasaurus (see-jil-MAH-sah-SAWR-us; Sijilmassa lizard) is a genus of tetanuran theropod dinosaur from the middle of the Cretaceous Period of northern Africa. ... Deutsches Museum The Deutsches Museum (German Museum) in Munich, Germany, is the worlds largest museum of technology and science, with approximately 1. ... For other uses, see Munich (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Terror bombing. ...

Two species of Spinosaurus have been named: Spinosaurus aegyptiacus (meaning "Egyptian spine lizard") and Spinosaurus marocannus (meaning "Moroccan spine lizard"). S. marocannus was originally described by Dale Russell as a new species based on the length of its neck vertebrae.^[8] Later authors have been split on this topic, some considering the length of the vertebrae to be variable from individual to individual and therefore regarding S. marocannus as invalid or a synonym of S. aegyptiacus,^[7][9][1] and others retaining it as valid.^[3] Dale A. Russell is a geologist/palaeontologist, currently Research Professor at The Department of Marine Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (MEAS) of North Carolina State University. ...

Specimens

Six partial specimens of Spinosaurus have been described. The probable size of these individual spinosaurs can be estimated using comparison to known material from other spinosaurid dinosaurs. The estimates below are based on the Theropod Database^[9] and Dal Sasso et al, 2005.^[1] Spinosaurids were a group of theropod dinosaurs with crocodile-like jaws, and ,many had sails. ...

Illustration of the original Spinosaurus material by Ernst Stromer.

IPHG 1912 VIII 19, described by Stromer in 1915, was the holotype.^[5] This specimen, from a subadult individual, was destroyed in World War II. However, detailed drawings and descriptions of the specimen remain. The individual is estimated to have been around 14 meters (46 ft) long and to have weighed about 6.7 tonnes (7.4 tons). The material consisted of a maxilla (upper jaw) fragment, an incomplete dentary (lower jaw) measuring 750 millimeters (29.5 in) long, (the skull is estimated to have been 1.45 meters (4.76 ft) long with a mandible approximately 1.34 meters (4.40 ft) long), nineteen teeth, two incomplete cervical vertebrae, seven back vertebrae, dorsal ribs, gastralia, and eight caudal centra. This was the specimen that Rauhut thought was chimeric. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 747 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (963 × 773 pixel, file size: 81 KB, MIME type: image/png) Illustration by Ernst Stromer, 1915. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 747 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (963 × 773 pixel, file size: 81 KB, MIME type: image/png) Illustration by Ernst Stromer, 1915. ... A holotype is one of several possible types. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... The maxillae are the largest bones of the face, except for the mandible, and form, by their union, the whole of the upper jaw. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter, symbol mm) is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, ″ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... A human neck. ... Gastralia (singular gastralium) are dermal bones today found in the ventral body wall of crocodilians and Sphenodon. ... A scorpion tail The tail is the section at the rear end of an animals body; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. ... The body is the largest part of a vertebra, and is more or less cylindrical in shape. ...

CMN 50791, described by Russell in 1996, is the holotype of Spinosaurus marocannus. The material it is based on includes a mid-cervical vertebra which is 195 millimeters (7.68 in) long, an anterior dorsal neural arch, an anterior dentary, and a mid-dentary. MNHN SAM 124, described by Taquet and Russell in 1998, consists of partial premaxillae, partial maxillae, vomers, and a dentary fragment. They came from an individual estimated to have been about 14 meters (46 ft) long and to have weighed about 6.7 tonnes (7.38 tons). The skull is estimated at approximately 1.42 meters (4.66 ft) long. Office National des Mines nBM231, described by Buffetaut and Ouaja in 2002, consists of an anterior dentary from Tunisia which is very similar to existing material of S. aegyptiacus.^[10] The vertebral arch (or neural arch) is the posterior part of a vertebra. ... The vomer bone is one of the unpaired facial bones of the skull. ...

MSNM V4047, described by Cristiano Dal Sasso of the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan and his colleagues in 2005, consists of premaxillae, partial maxillae, and partial nasals, which together measure 988 millimeters (3.24 ft) long. The massive skull is estimated at 1.75 meters (5.74 ft) long, and the entire animal is estimated to have been around 16 to 18 meters (52 to 59 ft) in length and weighed around 7 to 9 tonnes (7.7 to 9.9 tons). UCPC-2, also described by Dal Sasso et al. in 2005, consists of a 'fluted crest' from the region in front of the eyes.^[1] Type Anti-tank Nationality Joint France/Germany Era Cold War, modern Launch platform Individual, Vehicle Target Vehicle, Fortification History Builder MBDA, Bharat Dynamics (under license) Date of design 70s Production period since 1972 Service duration since 1972 Operators 41 countries Variants MILAN 1, MILAN 2, MILAN 2T, MILAN 3, MILAN... The Nasal Bones (Ossa Faciei & Ossa Nasalia) are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face, and form, by their junction, the bridge of the nose. ... A millimetre (American spelling: millimeter), symbol mm is an SI unit of length that is equal to one thousandth of a metre. ...

Paleoecology

The environment inhabited by Spinosaurus is only partially understood, and covers a great deal of what is now northern Africa. Those Spinosaurus that lived in what is now Egypt, for example, may have contended with shoreline conditions on tidal flats and channels, living in mangrove forests alongside similarly large dinosaurian predators Bahariasaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, giant titanosaur sauropod Paralititan, smaller titanosaur Aegyptosaurus, 10 meter (33 ft) long crocodilian Stomatosuchus, and the coelacanth Mawsonia.^[11] Shore A shore or shoreline is the land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. ... Mudflats in Brewster, Massachusetts extending hundreds of yards offshore at the low tide. ... Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal. ... Bahariasaurus (Bahari Lizard) was originally thought to be a very large carnivore, but turned out to be bones of a medium-sized carnivore mixed up with bones of a titanosaur sauropod. ... Species C. saharicus (Depéret & Savornin, 1927) (type) Carcharodontosaurus (/kɑː.kɑː.ɹə.ˈdÉ’n. ... Genera and Families Andesaurus Family Titanosauridae Epachthosaurus Argentinosaurus Antarctosaurus Malawisaurus Argyrosaurus Gondwanatitan Aeolosaurus Baurutitan Trigonosaurus Alamosaurus Isisaurus Subfamily Nemegtosaurinae Subfamily Saltasaurinae For the Titanosaurus featured in the Godzilla film series, see Titanosaurus (Godzilla). ... Families Brachiosauridae Camarasauridae Cetiosauridae Diplodocidae Euhelopodidae Nemegtosauridae Titanosauridae Vulcanodontidae Sauropoda, the sauropods, are a suborder or infraorder of the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs. ... Binomial name Paralititan stromeri Smith et al, 2001 Paralititan stromeri was a giant titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur discovered in coastal deposits in the Upper Cretaceous Bahariya Formation of Egypt. ... Binomial name Aegyptosaurus baharijensis Stromer, 1932 Aegyptosaurus (IPA: ) meaning Egypt’s lizard, where it was discovered (Greek sauros meaning lizard) is a genus of dinosaur believed to have lived in what is now Africa, around 95 million years ago, during the mid- and late-Cretaceous Period (Albian to Cenomanian stages). ... Suborders Eusuchia Protosuchia † Mesosuchia † Sebecosuchia † Thalattosuchia † Crocodilia is an order of large reptiles that scientists believe branched off from class Reptilia about 220 million years ago. ... Stomatosuchus inermis (Weaponless Mouth Crocodile) was an enormous 12 meter long crocodilian from the Upper Cretaceous of Egypt. ... Families See text. ...

Feeding ecology

It is unclear whether Spinosaurus was primarily a terrestrial predator or a fisher, as indicated by its elongated jaws, conical teeth and raised nostrils. The only direct evidence for spinosaur diet comes from related European and South American taxa. Baryonyx was found with both fish scales and bones from juvenile Iguanodon in its stomach, while a tooth embedded in a South American pterosaur bone suggests that spinosaurs occasionally preyed on these flying archosaurs.^[12] Spinosaurus was likely to have been a generalized and opportunistic predator, possibly a Cretaceous equivalent of large grizzly bears, being biased toward fishing, though it undoubtedly scavenged and took many kinds of small or medium-sized prey.^[13] This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... Binomial name Baryonyx walkeri Charig & Milner, 1986 Baryonyx // meaning heavy claw, referring to its large claw (Greek barus meaning heavy and onyx meaning claw or nail) was a carnivorous dinosaur discovered in clay pits just south of Dorking, England, and northern Spain. ... Species (Boulenger, 1881) (neotype) (Holl, 1829) nom. ... Suborders Pterodactyloidea Rhamphorhynchoidea * Pterosaurs (, from the Greek πτερόσαυρος, pterosauros, meaning winged lizard, often referred to as pterodactyls, from the Greek πτεροδάκτυλος, pterodaktulos, meaning winged finger ) were flying reptiles of the clade Pterosauria. ... For the Brooklyn-based indie rock band, see Grizzly Bear (band). ... For a person who scavenges, see Waste picker. ...

Paleobiology

Size

Size comparison of selected giant theropod dinosaurs

Since its discovery, Spinosaurus has been a top contender for longest and largest theropod dinosaur, though this fact did not reach the public consciousness until its depiction in the film Jurassic Park III and the description of a new specimen in 2005. Both Friedrich von Huene^[14] and Donald F. Glut,^[15] decades apart, listed it as among the most massive theropods or the most massive in their surveys, at upwards of 6 tons in weight and 15 meters (50 feet) in length. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul also listed it as the longest theropod at 15 meters (50 feet), but gave a lower mass estimate.^[16] Recent estimates, based on new specimens, list Spinosaurus at 16 to 18 metres (53.3 to 60 feet) long and 7 to 9 tonnes in weight (7.7 to 9.9 tons).^[1] At least one unpublished survey suggested that Spinosaurus reached sizes of 12 to 19 tonnes in weight. These high-end weight estimates were based on the author's estimated 17.4 meter length which was based on comparing the holotype's largest known vertebra (210 mm (8.27 in) long) with the largest known Baryonyx vertebra. This implied an extremely large overall mass, with an unknown upper bound as apparently the holotype specimens are from animals that weren't fully grown.^[17][18] However, the author of these estimates has recently reduced them to similar sizes suggested by dal Sasso et al.^[9][19] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 300 pixelsFull resolution (1108 × 416 pixel, file size: 147 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 300 pixelsFull resolution (1108 × 416 pixel, file size: 147 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ... Friedrich von Huene (March 22, 1875 – April 4, 1969) was a German paleontologist who named more dinosaurs in the early 20th century than anyone else in Europe. ... Donald F. Glut is an American writer, motion picture director, screenwriter and actor. ... Gregory S. Paul (born 1954) is a freelance paleontologist, author and illustrator. ... A holotype is one of several possible types. ... Binomial name Baryonyx walkeri Charig & Milner, 1986 Baryonyx // meaning heavy claw, referring to its large claw (Greek barus meaning heavy and onyx meaning claw or nail) was a carnivorous dinosaur discovered in clay pits just south of Dorking, England, and northern Spain. ...

François Therrien and Donald Henderson, in a recent paper using scaling based on skull length, have challenged previous estimates, finding the length too great and the weight too small. Their estimates include a length of 12.6 to 14.3 meters (41.3 to 47.0 ft) and a mass of 12.0 to 20.9 tonnes (13.2 to 23.0 tons).^[20] Their study has been criticized for the choice of large theropods used for comparison (most of the skeletons of large theropods used to set the initial equations are of tyrannosaurids and carnosaurs, which have a different build than spinosaurids) and for issues relating to their spinosaurid skull reconstructions.^[21] Resolution awaits more complete remains. Genera Albertosaurus Daspletosaurus Gorgosaurus Tarbosaurus Tyrannosaurus The tyrannosaurids were a family of dinosaurs whose name is derived from the Greek words trannos, meaning tyrant; and sauros, meaning lizard. ... Families Allosauridae    Allosaurinae    ?Carcharodontosaurinae Sinraptoridae Carnosauria is a sub-group of Theropods, a group of predatory dinosaurs. ...

Sail

Illustration of Spinosaurus dorsal vertebrae by Ernst Stromer.

Spinosaurus sails were unusual, although other dinosaurs of the same time and area, namely the ornithopod Ouranosaurus and the sauropod Rebbachisaurus, might have developed a similar structural adaptation of their dorsal vertebrae (however, this is not uncontroversial; see the articles about these animals for more information). The sail is possibly analogous (not homologous) to that of the Permian mammal-like reptile, Dimetrodon, which lived before the dinosaurs even appeared; these similarities are due to parallel evolution. The sail may also have been more hump-like than sail-like; as noted by Jack Bowman Bailey most recently, spinosaur spines are not thin rods but broad front to back, rather like those of some types of buffalo, and so may have supported a thicker, fatty structure as opposed to a skin sail.^[22] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 395 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (686 × 1042 pixel, file size: 210 KB, MIME type: image/png) Illustration by Ernst Stromer, 1915. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 395 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (686 × 1042 pixel, file size: 210 KB, MIME type: image/png) Illustration by Ernst Stromer, 1915. ... Families Hypsilophodontidae* Rhabdodontidae Dryosauridae Camptosauridae Iguanodontidae Hadrosauridae Ornithopods are a group of bird-hipped dinosaurs who started out as small, bipedal running grazers, and grew in size and numbers until they became one of the most successful groups of herbivores in the Cretaceous world, and dominated the North American landscape. ... This article needs to be wikified. ... Families Brachiosauridae Camarasauridae Cetiosauridae Diplodocidae Euhelopodidae Nemegtosauridae Titanosauridae Vulcanodontidae Sauropoda, the sauropods, are a suborder or infraorder of the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs. ... Rebbachisaurus was a sauropod of the subfamily Macronaria. ... The wings of pterosaurs (1), bats (2) and birds (3) are analogous: they serve the same function and are similar in structure, but each evolved independently. ... In biology, homology is any similarity between structures that is due to their shared ancestry. ... The Permian is a geologic period that extends from about 299. ... Mammal-like reptiles is a term used to describe the prehistoric animals that appear to be the reptilian ancestors of mammals. ... Species Dimetrodon grandis skeleton at the National Museum of Natural History Dimetrodon () (two measures of teeth), was a predatory synapsid (mammal-like reptile) genus that flourished during the Permian Period, living between 280 and 265 million years ago. ... Bee hovering in flight In evolutionary biology, parallel evolution refers to the independent evolution of similar traits in closely related lineages of species, while convergent evolution refers to the appearance of striking similarities among lineages of organisms only very distantly related. ... Binomial name (Linnaeus, 1758) The Wisent or European Bison (Bison bonasus) (IPA: ) is a bison species and the heaviest land animal in Europe. ...

The function of these sails is uncertain; scientists have proposed several hypotheses including heat regulation and display. In addition, such a prominent feature on its back could also make it appear larger than it was, intimidating other animals. Look up Hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

If the sail contained abundant blood vessels, the animal could have used the sail's large surface area to absorb heat. This would imply that the animal was only partly warm-blooded at best and lived in climates where nighttime temperatures were cool or low and the sky usually not cloudy. It is thought that Spinosaurus and Ouranosaurus both lived in or at the margins of an earlier version of the Sahara Desert, which could explain this. It is also possible that the sail was used to radiate excess heat from the body, rather than to collect it. Large animals, due to the relatively small ratio of surface area of their body compared to the overall volume (Haldane's principle), face far greater problems of dissipating excess heat at higher temperatures than gaining it at lower. Sails of these dinosaurs added considerably to the skin area of the body, with minimum increase of volume. Furthermore, if the sail was turned away from the sun, or positioned at a 90 degree angle towards a cooling wind, the animal would quite effectively cool itself in the warm climate of Cretaceous Africa.^[23] The Sahara is the worlds second largest desert (second to Antarctica), over 9,000,000 km² (3,500,000 mi²), located in northern Africa and is 2. ... For the physiologist (JBSs father), see John Scott Haldane. ...

Elaborate body structures of many modern-day animals usually serve to attract members of the opposite sex during mating. It is quite possible that the sails of these dinosaurs were used for courtship, in a way similar to a peacock's tail. Stromer speculated that males and females may have differed in the size of the neural spine.^[5] If this was the case, the sails may have been brightly colored, but this is purely speculative. Peacock re-directs here; for alternate uses see Peacock (disambiguation). ... The word male has the following meanings: In biology, it refers to one half of a heterogamous reproduction system, where the female is the other half. ... Female is a sex that denotes an animal which produces egg cells in order to reproduce. ...

Finally, it is quite possible that the sail combined these functions, acting normally as a heat regulator, becoming a courting aid during the mating season, being used to cool itself and, on occasions, turning into an intimidating device when an animal was feeling threatened.

Posture

Although traditionally depicted as a biped, it has been suggested since the early 1980s that Spinosaurus was at least an occasional quadruped.^[15] This has been bolstered by the discovery of Baryonyx, a relative with robust arms.^[24] Bailey (1997) was sympathetic to a possible quadrupedal posture,^[22] leading to new restorations of it as such.^[24] This hypothesis has fallen out of favor, at least as a typical gait, though spinosaurids may have crouched in a quadrupedal posture.^[25] Bipedalism is standing, or moving for example by walking, running, or hopping, on two appendages (typically legs). ... The Zebra is an example of a quadruped. ... Binomial name Baryonyx walkeri Charig & Milner, 1986 Baryonyx // meaning heavy claw, referring to its large claw (Greek barus meaning heavy and onyx meaning claw or nail) was a carnivorous dinosaur discovered in clay pits just south of Dorking, England, and northern Spain. ... Look up Hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

In popular culture

The animatronic Spinosaurus from Jurassic Park III.

Spinosaurus has long been depicted in popular books about dinosaurs, although only recently has there been enough information about spinosaurids for an accurate depiction to be made. Traditionally, it has been restored as a generalized upright theropod with a sail on its back, after an influential 1955 skeletal reconstruction by Lapparent and Lavocat.^[24] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (467x700, 60 KB) Summary Spinosaurus Aegypticus Licensing This image is a screenshot of a copyrighted television program or station ID. As such, the copyright for it is most likely owned by the company or corporation that produced it. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (467x700, 60 KB) Summary Spinosaurus Aegypticus Licensing This image is a screenshot of a copyrighted television program or station ID. As such, the copyright for it is most likely owned by the company or corporation that produced it. ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ...

Spinosaurus was featured as the main "antagonist" in the 2001 film Jurassic Park III. It was portrayed as larger and more powerful than Tyrannosaurus, in a scene depicting a battle between the two resurrected predators where Spinosaurus emerges victorious by snapping the tyrannosaur's neck. In reality, such a battle could never have taken place while the species were still extant, since Spinosaurus and Tyrannosaurus lived thousands of miles and millions of years apart. For other uses, see Antagonist (disambiguation). ... Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ... Species T. rex (type) Osborn, 1905 Synonyms Manospondylus Cope, 1892 Dynamosaurus Osborn, 1905  ?Nanotyrannus Bakker, Williams & Currie, 1988 Stygivenator Olshevsky, 1995 Dinotyrannus Olshevsky, 1995 Tyrannosaurus (pronounced IPA: , meaning tyrant lizard) is a genus of theropod dinosaur. ... In biology, extant taxon is commonly used in discussions of living and fossil species. ...

After appearing in Jurassic Park III, Spinosaurus was featured in a wide variety of merchandise related to the Jurassic Park films, including a number of video games such as Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis from Vivendi Universal. Spinosaurus was also featured in the television documentary The Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt, in which it was seen wading through the marshlands of Cretaceous Egypt. Jurassic Park III is a 2001 film that is the third film as part of the Jurassic Park franchise. ... Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis is a video game for the PC, Xbox, and Playstation 2 based on the novel and film series Jurassic Park. ... Vivendi Universal (VU) is a French conglomerate active in media and communications with activities in music, television and film, publishing, telecommunications and the Internet. ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (12 June 1870 — 18 December 1952) was a German palaeontologist. ... Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (12 June 1870 — 18 December 1952) was a German palaeontologist. ... Paul Callistus Sereno (born October 11, 1957) is an American paleontologist who is the discoverer of several new dinosaur species on several continents. ... Dale A. Russell is a geologist/palaeontologist, currently Research Professor at The Department of Marine Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (MEAS) of North Carolina State University. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Gregory S. Paul (born 1954) is a freelance paleontologist, author and illustrator. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Donald F. Glut is an American writer, motion picture director, screenwriter and actor. ...

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Spinosaurus

Dinosaurs Portal

• Spinosaurus in the Dino Directory
• Spinosaurus at DinoData
• The Biggest Carnivore: Dinosaur History Rewritten
• Spinosaurus Jaws
• Discover Magazine