Spirulina is the common name for human and animal food supplements produced primarily from two species of cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae): Arthrospira platensis, and Arthrospira maxima. These and other Arthrospira species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. There is now agreement that they are distinct genera, and that the food species belong to Arthrospira; nonetheless, the older term Spirulina remains the popular name. Spirulina is cultivated around the world, and is used as a human dietary supplement as well as a whole food and is available in tablet, flake, and powder form. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium, and poultry industries.^[1] Orders The taxonomy is currently under revision. ... Spirulina is a genus of cyanobacteria, not to be confused with the dietary supplement of the same name actually belonging to the genus Arthrospira. ... A dietary supplement is intended to supply nutrients, (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids or amino acids) that are missing or not consumed in sufficient quantity in a persons diet. ... Fodder growing from barley In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, including cattle, goats, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. ... Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. ... “Aquaria” redirects here. ... Ducks amongst other poultry The Poultry-dealer, after Cesare Vecellio Poultry is the category of domesticated birds kept for meat, eggs, and feathers. ...

Biology

Spirulina are free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. Spirulina occurs naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate. A. platensis occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas A. maxima is confined to Central America.^[1] A right circular cylinder An elliptic cylinder In mathematics, a cylinder is a quadric surface, with the following equation in Cartesian coordinates: This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder (a = b). ... Trichomes, from the Greek meaning growth of hair, are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants and protists. ... A helix (pl: helices), from the Greek word έλικας/έλιξ, is a twisted shape like a spring, screw or a spiral (correctly termed helical) staircase. ... For other uses, see PH (disambiguation). ... Ball-and-stick model of the carbonate ion, CO32− For other meanings, see Carbonate (disambiguation) In chemistry, a carbonate is a salt or ester of carbonic acid. ... For baking soda, see Sodium bicarbonate In inorganic chemistry, a bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. ...

History

An illustration from the Florentine Codex showing how the Aztecs harvested Spirulina off lakes by skimming the surface with ropes and then drying the algae into square cakes that would be eaten as a nourishing condiment.

Spirulina is believed to have been a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th-century; its harvesting from Lake Texcoco and subsequent sale as cakes is described by one of Cortés' soldiers.^[2] The Aztecs called it Teocuitlatl, meaning stone's excrement. Spirulina was found in abundance at the lake by French researchers in the 1960s, but there is no reference to its use there as a daily food source after the 16th century. The first large-scale Spirulina production plant, run by Sosa Texcoco, was established there in the early 1970s.^[1] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 268 pixelsFull resolution‎ (883 × 296 pixels, file size: 107 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Depiction of harvest of spirulina and the cakes made from the algae. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 268 pixelsFull resolution‎ (883 × 296 pixels, file size: 107 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Depiction of harvest of spirulina and the cakes made from the algae. ... Page 51 of Book IX from the Florentine Codex. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the European discovery of the New World by Columbus. ... Lake Texcoco is a lake in Mexico. ... Hernán(do) Cortés Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. ...

Leo Szilard postulated the development of algae-based food supplements (which he called "Amruss") in his 1961 short story, The Voice of the Dolphins. Leó Szilárd (right) working with Albert Einstein. ...

Spirulina may have an even longer history in Chad, as far back as the 9th century Kanem Empire. It is still in daily use today, dried into cakes called Dihé, which are used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The Spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad.^[3] The Kanem Empire existed in modern Chad and Libya. ... Lake Chad (in French: Lac Tchad) is a large, shallow lake in Africa. ...

Cultivation

Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water. The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, and Myanmar (i.e.Burma).^[1] A raceway pond is a long, relatively shallow open-pond made up of channels that wind around, sometimes in the pattern of an automotive raceway, though many ponds look like a very simple maze if looked at from above. ... Anthem Kaba Ma Kyei Capital Naypyidaw Largest city Yangon Official languages Burmese Demonym Burmese Government Military junta  -  Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Than Shwe  -  Prime Minister Soe Win  -  Acting Prime Minister Thein Sein Establishment  -  Bagan 849–1287   -  Taungoo Dynasty 1486–1752   -  Konbaung Dynasty 1752–1885   -  Colonial rule...

Nutrients and other chemicals

Protein

Spirulina contains unusually high amounts of protein, between 55 and 77% by dry weight, depending upon the source. It is a complete protein, containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine, and lysine, as compared to standard proteins such as that from meat, eggs, or milk. It is, however, superior to all standard plant protein, such as that from legumes.^[4][5] A complete protein or whole protein is a protein that contains all amino acids, most notably the nine essential amino acids to humans and most animals, in ratios appropriate to the body. ... First, what is an amino acid? Amino Acids are chemical substances that make up protein. ... Methionine is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. ... Cysteine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid that is found in most proteins, although only in small quantities. ... Lysine is one of the 20 amino acids normally found in proteins. ... This article is about the fruit of the plants also called legumes. For the plants themselves, see Fabaceae . ...

Essential fatty acids

Spirulina tablets

Spirulina is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).^[5][6] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1449x1194, 395 KB) (All user names refer to en. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1449x1194, 395 KB) (All user names refer to en. ... gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA) is an omega-6 essential fatty acid found primarily in vegetable oils. ... Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid. ... Linoleic acid (LA) is an unsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. ... Stearidonic acid is an ω-3 essential fatty acid, sometimes called moroctic acid. ... Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid. ... Docosahexaenoic acid (commonly known as DHA; 22:6(ω-3), all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid; trivial name cervonic acid) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. ... Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6). ...

Vitamins

Spirulina contains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), B12 (cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E.^[5][6] The bioavailability of vitamin B12 in Spirulina is in dispute. Several biological assays have been used to test for the presence of vitamin B12.^[7] The most popular is the US Pharmacopeia method using the Lactobacillus leichmannii assay. Studies using this method have shown Spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable vitamin B12.^[8] However, this assay does not differentiate between true B12 (cobalamin) and similar compounds (corrinoids) that cannot be used in human metabolism. Cyanotech, a grower of spirulina, claims to have done a more recent assay, which has shown Spirulina to be a significant source of cobalamin. However the assay is not published for scientific review and so the existence of this assay is in doubt.^[9] The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada in their position paper on vegetarian diets state that spirulina can not be counted on as a reliable source of active vitamin B12.^[10] For the similarly spelled nucleic acid, see Thymine Thiamine or thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is one of the B vitamins. ... Riboflavin (E101), also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in animals. ... Nicotinamide, also known as niacinamide, is the amide of niacin (vitamin B3) which has the chemical formula C6H6N2O. Niacinamide is a derivative of vitamin B-3 can be used for the treatment of arthritis by aiding the body in its production of cartilage. ... Main article: vitamin B6 Pyridoxine is one of the compounds that can be called vitamin B6, along with Pyridoxal and Pyridoxamine. ... Folic acid and folate (the anion form) are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9. ... Cyanocobalamin is a compound that is metabolized to a vitamin in the B complex commonly known as vitamin B12 (or B12 for short). ... This article is about the nutrient. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. ... In pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. ... The American Dietetic Association (ADA) is the United States largest organization of food and nutrition professionals, with nearly 65,000 members. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For animals adapted to eat primarily plants, sometimes referred to as vegetarian animals, see Herbivore. ...

Minerals

Spirulina is a rich source of potassium, and also contains calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc.^[5][6] General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... REDIRECT [[ Insert text]]EWWWWWWWWWWWWW YO General Name, symbol, number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 51. ... For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... General Name, symbol, number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 54. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... For other uses, see Selenium (disambiguation). ... For sodium in the diet, see Salt. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ...

Photosynthetic pigments

Spirulina contains many pigments including chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.^[1] Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Beta-carotene is a form of carotene with β-rings at both ends. ... Zeaxanthin is one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina. ... Canthaxanthin is a food additive used for farmed salmon raised in environments where astaxanthin sources are not available. ... Phycobiliproteins are water-soluble proteins present in cyanobacteria and certain algae (rhodophytes, cryptomonads, glaucocystophytes) that capture light energy which is then passed on to chlorophylls during photosynthesis. ... Phycocyanin is a pigment that is blue and is readily found in blue-green algae. ... Allophycocyanin is an accessory pigment to bacteriochlorophyll and is part of the phycobilin accessory pigment family, along with phycocyanin and phycoerythrin. ...

Evidence of health and healing effects

Despite existing research supporting Spirulina's health and healing properties, detractors claim that these are frequently overstated by Spirulina advocates. Conversely, Spirulina advocates have accused health food detractors of dismissing all such claims without acknowledging this research. Two online publications exemplify these opposing positions, respectively: Superfoods For Optimum Health: Chlorella and Spirulina, and Wellness Letter on Blue Green Algae. Many positive claims are based on research done on individual nutrients that Spirulina contains, such as GLA, various antioxidants, etc., rather than on direct research using Spirulina. What follows is research on the health and healing effects of Spirulina. In vitro research may suggest the possibility of similar results in humans, but cannot be taken as proof of human effects. Animal research provides stronger evidence, but again, does not represent proof of similar effects in humans. The results of Clinical trials are the best evidence available. An antioxidant is a chemical that prevents the oxidation of other chemicals. ... In vitro (Latin: within the glass) refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a test tube, or, generally, in a controlled environment outside a living organism. ... For other uses, see Animal testing (disambiguation). ... In medicine, a clinical trial (synonyms: clinical studies, research protocols, medical research) is a research study. ...

In vitro research

Spirulina extract inhibits HIV replication in human T-cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and Langerhans cells.^[11] Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... T cells are a subset of lymphocytes that play a large role in the immune response. ... A Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) is a blood cell having a round nucleus, such as a lymphocyte. ... Langerhans cells are immature dendritic cells containing large granules called Birbeck granules. ...

Animal research

Spirulina helps prevent heart damage caused by chemotherapy using Doxorubicin, without interfering with its anti-tumor activity.^[12] Spirulina reduces the severity of strokes and improves recovery of movement after a stroke;^[13] reverses age-related declines in memory and learning;^[14] and prevents and treats hay fever.^[15] Cardiotoxicity is the occurrence of heart muscle damage. ... Chemotherapy, in its most general sense, refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells, specifically those of micro-organisms or cancer. ... Doxorubicin or Adriamycin® or hydroxyldaunorubicin is a DNA-interacting drug widely used in chemotherapy. ... The Strokes are an American rock and roll band who formed in New York City and gained fame for their live shows. ... One of the key concerns of older adults is experiencing memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimers Disease. ... For the play, see Hay Fever. ...

Clinical trials

Spirulina is effective for the clinical improvement of melanosis and keratosis due to chronic arsenic poisoning;^[16] improves weight-gain and corrects anemia in both HIV-infected and HIV-negative undernourished children;^[17] and protects against hay fever.^[18] Melanism is an increased amount of black or nearly black pigmentation (as of skin, feathers, or hair) of an individual or kind of organism. ... Keratosis can refer to: actinic keratosis (also known as solar keratosis) seborrheic keratosis keratosis pilaris (KP) Category: ‪Disambiguation‬ ... Arsenic poisoning kills by allosteric inhibition of essential metabolic enzymes, leading to death from multi-system organ failure. ... This article discusses the medical condition. ... Percentage of population affected by malnutrition by country, according to United Nations statistics. ...

A 2007 clinical trial^{[citation needed]} found that 4.5 grams of spirulina per day for six weeks: lowered total cholesterol, increased HDL cholesterol, lowered triglycerides; and lowered both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Advocates

An organization called the Intergovernmental Institution for the Use of Micro-algae Foods Spirulina Against Malnutrition.^[19] aspires to build a consensus to make Spirulina a key driver to achieve food security and improve human health conditions throughout the world.

Spirulina has been proposed by both NASA (CELSS)^[20] and the European Space Agency (MELISSA)^[21] as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions. For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... Controlled (or Closed) Ecological Life Support Systems or (acronym CELSS) are a type of scientific endeavor to create a self-supporting life support system for space stations and colonies typically through controlled ecological environments, such as the BioHome, BIOS-3, Biosphere 2 and Mars Base Zero. ... ESA redirects here. ... Look up Melissa in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

References

External links

• HydroGrow Laborotorios: Argentine Spirulina
• Spiruvita: Argentine Spirulina
• World Algae Producers & Researchers Association
• Soley Institute
• Micro-algae Spirulina Algosophette
• Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition (IIMSAM)
• Micrographs and movies of A. platensis.
• A review of Spirulina (Arthrospira)
• A Detailed Spirulina Review
• Pagina en español sobre spirulina y chlorella
• Article about the possible anti-cancer properties of spirulina