NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Stuttering

Stuttering, also known as stammering in the United Kingdom, is a speech disorder in which the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words or phrases; and involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the stutterer is unable to produce sounds. Look up stutter, stuttering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) is a coding of diseases and signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or diseases, as classified by the World Health Organization (WHO). ... // F00-F99 - Mental and behavioural disorders (F00-F09) Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders (F00) Dementia in Alzheimers disease (F01) Vascular dementia (F011) Multi-infarct dementia (F02) Dementia in other diseases classified elsewhere (F020) Dementia in Picks disease (F021) Dementia in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (F022) Dementia in Huntingtons... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... Speech disorders or speech impediments, as they are also called, are a type of communication disorders where normal speech is disrupted. ... Bold text This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The term stuttering is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by stutterers as blocks, and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels. Much of what constitutes "stuttering" cannot be observed by the listener; this includes such things as sound and word fears, situational fears, anxiety, tension, self-pity, stress, shame, and a feeling of "loss of control" during speech. The emotional state of the individual who stutters in response to the stuttering often constitutes the most difficult aspect of the disorder. The term "stuttering", as popularly used, covers a wide spectrum of severity: it may encompass individuals with barely perceptible impediments, for whom the disorder is largely cosmetic, as well as others with extremely severe symptoms, for whom the problem can effectively prevent most oral communication. Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...

Stuttering is generally not a problem with the physical production of speech sounds (see Speech sound disorders, Voice disorders) or putting thoughts into words (see Dyslexia, Cluttering). Despite popular perceptions to the contrary, stuttering does not affect and has no bearing on intelligence. Apart from their speech impairment, people who stutter are normal. Anxiety, low confidence, nervousness, and stress therefore do not cause stuttering, although they are very often the result of living with a highly stigmatized disability. Speech sound disorders are speech disorders in which some speech sounds (called phonemes) in a childs (or, sometimes, an adults) native language are either not produced, not produced correctly, or are not used correctly. ... Voice disorders are medical conditions affecting the production of speech. ... This article is about developmental dyslexia. ... Cluttering (also called tachyphemia) is a communicative disorder characterized by speech that is difficult for listeners to understand due to rapid speaking rate, erratic rhythm, poor syntax or grammar, and words or groups of words unrelated to the sentence. ...

The disorder is also variable, which means that in certain situations, such as talking on the telephone, the stuttering might be more severe or less, depending on the anxiety level connected with that activity. In other situations, such as singing (as with country music star Mel Tillis or pop singer Gareth Gates) or speaking alone (or reading from a script, as with actor James Earl Jones), fluency improves. (It is thought that speech production in these situations, as opposed to normal spontaneous speech, may involve a different neurological function.) Some very mild stutterers, such as Bob Newhart, have used the disorder to their advantage, although more severe stutterers very often face serious hurdles in their social and professional lives. Although the exact etiology of stuttering is unknown, both genetics and neurophysiology are thought to contribute. Although there are many treatments and speech therapy techniques available that may help increase fluency in some stutterers, there is essentially no "cure" for the disorder at present. This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Lonnie Melvin Tillis (born August 8th, 1932 in Tampa, Florida) is a country music singer/songwriter, and actor. ... Gareth Paul Gates (born July 12, 1984, Bradford, England) is an English pop singer who shot to fame in 2002 when he came second in the first series of the ITV talent show Pop Idol. ... James Earl Jones (b. ... George Robert Bob Newhart (born September 5, 1929 in Oak Park, Illinois) is an American stand-up comedian and actor. ... This article is about the medical term. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... Neurophysiology is a part of physiology as a science, which is concerned with the study of the nervous system. ... It has been suggested that Speech-Language Pathology, Speech pathology, Phoniatrics be merged into this article or section. ... Fluency is the property of a person or of a system that delivers information quickly and with expertise. ...

Incidence and prevalence

The prevalence of stuttering in preschool children is about 2.5%, that is, about 1 young child in 40 now stutters. The incidence is about 5%, or 1 in 20 children stutter at some point in childhood.²⁶

About 1% of adults stutter. The figure found in a recent study was 0.73%, or about one in 135 adults.²⁷ About 80% of adult stutterers are men and about 20% are women.²⁸

Studies in years past claimed that some countries had higher or lower rates of stuttering, or that some cultures had no stutterers at all. These studies are generally discounted now, although there are likely more adult stutterers in countries with less speech therapy.

Other fluency disorders

This article is about developmental stuttering, that is, stuttering that originates when a child is learning to speak and develops as the child matures into adulthood. Several other speech disorders resemble stuttering:

Head injuries and strokes can cause repetitions, prolongations, and blocks. Stuttering also can be induced by specific medications. Medications such as antidepressants, antihistamines, tranquilizers and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been known to affect speech in this way. Cluttering (also called tachyphemia) is a communicative disorder characterized by speech that is difficult for listeners to understand due to rapid speaking rate, erratic rhythm, poor syntax or grammar, and words or groups of words unrelated to the sentence. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Spasmodic dysphonia (or laryngeal dystonia) is a voice disorder characterized by involuntary movements of one or more muscles of the larynx (vocal folds or voice box) during speech. ... Social anxiety is an experience of fear, apprehension or worry regarding social situations and being evaluated by others. ... Head injury is a trauma to the head, that may or may not include injury to the brain (see also brain injury). ... For other uses, see Stroke (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An antidepressant is a medication used primarily in the treatment of clinical depression. ... An antihistamine is a drug which serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions, through action at the histamine receptor. ... A sedative is a drug that depresses the central nervous system (CNS), which causes calmness, relaxation, reduction of anxiety, sleepiness, slowed breathing, slurred speech, staggering gait, poor judgment, and slow, uncertain reflexes. ... Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants. ...

Rarely, traumatic experiences caused an adult to begin stuttering. Psychogenic stuttering typically involves rapid, effortless repetitions of initial sounds, without struggle behavior.

Causes

No single, exclusive cause of stuttering is known. A variety of hypotheses and theories suggest multiple factors contributing to stuttering, according to Dr. Chris Stern.

Since stuttering may reappear at times of emotional strain, a psychogenesis has been proposed, but if there are any psychologic abnormalities in the stutterer, they are secondary rather than primary. It's observed that many stutterers, probably as a result of this impediment to free social interaction, do become increasingly fearful of talking and develop feelings of inferiority. By the time adolescence and adulthood are reached, emotional factors are so prominent that many physicians have mistaken stuttering for neurosis. Usually there is little or no evidence of any personality deviation before the onset of stuttering, and psychotherapy has not had a significant effect on the underlying defect. A strong family history in many cases and male dominance point to a genetic origin, but the inheritance does not follow a readily discernible pattern.

Genetics

Stuttering has been correlated with certain genes;²⁹ however, a genetic cause for stuttering has yet to be proven. Many studies have investigated stuttering in families, yet typically have yielded results that could be interpreted as either genetic or social environment ("nature" or "nurture"). The social environment is the direct influence of a group of individuals and their contributions to this environment, as both groups and individuals who are in frequent communication with each other within their cultural or socio-economical strata, which create role identity(-ies) and guide the individuals self (sociology...

Neurology of adult stuttering

No brain scan studies have been done of stuttering children. It is unknown whether stuttering children have neurological abnormalities. The planum temporale is the posterior superior surface of the superior temporal gyrus in the cerebrum. ... Grays Fig. ... // Bold textItalic text The vocal folds, also known popularly as vocal cords, are composed of twin infoldings of mucous membrane stretched horizontally across the larynx. ...

Another prominent view is that stuttering is caused by neural synchronization problems in the brain. Recent research indicates that stuttering may be correlated with disrupted fibers between the speech area and language planning area, both in the left hemisphere of the brain. Such a disruption could potentially be due to early brain damage or to a genetic defect. Neurophysiology is a part of physiology as a science, which is concerned with the study of the nervous system. ... Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of language. ... The human brain as viewed from above, showing the cerebral hemispheres. ... In animals, the brain or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the control center of the central nervous system, responsible for behaviour. ... Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. ...

The first brain imaging studies in stuttering were done on two subjects using SPECT scanning before and after the administration of haloperidol. The researchers found that the subjects with stuttering had less blood flow in the Broca's and Wernicke's area and associated this with dysfluency. They found that haloperidol not only reduced stuttering but reversed this functional abnormality. Numerous PET and functional MRI studies have presented data that is in agreement with this first study. Haloperidol (sold under the tradenames Aloperidin, Bioperidolo, Brotopon, Dozic, Duraperidol (Germany), Einalon S, Eukystol, Haldol, Halosten, Keselan, Linton, Peluces, Serenace, Serenase, Sigaperidol) is a conventional, or typical, butyrophenone antipsychotic drug. ... Blood flow is the flow of blood in the cardiovascular system. ... Brocas area is the section of the human brain (in the opercular and triangular sections of the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe of the cortex) that is involved in language processing, speech production and comprehension. ... Wernickes area is a part of the human brain that forms part of the cortex, on the left posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus, encircling the auditory cortex, on the Sylvian fissure (part of the brain where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe meet). ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the use of MRI to measure the haemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

Volumetric MRI studies have found that portions of the Broca's and Wernicke's areas are smaller in people who stutter and this correlates well with the hypometabolism in these two brain regions. New forms of structural MRI have found that there is a disconnection in white matter fiber tracts in the left hemisphere and greater numbers of white matter fiber tracts in the right hemisphere. White matter is one of the two main solid components of the central nervous system. ...

Stress-related changes

In certain situations, such as talking on the telephone, stuttering might increase, or it might decrease, depending on the anxiety level connected with that activity.

Under stress, people's voices change. They tense their speech-production muscles, increasing their vocal pitch. They try to talk faster. They repeat words or phrases. They add interjections, also known as "filler words", such as "uh." These are normal dysfluencies. A study found that under stress, non-stutterers went from 0% to 4% dysfluencies, for the simple task of saying colors. Stutterers went from 1% to 9%.³⁸

Stuttering reduces stress 10%, as measured by systolic blood pressure.³⁹ But stuttering causes stress in listeners.⁴⁰ Stuttering appears to reduce stress temporarily, but then cause stress, creating a cyclical pattern in which the stutterer stutters on the first syllable of the first word, then says the rest of the word and several more words fluently, then stutters again, then says a few more words fluently, and so on.

One study found that developmental stuttering and Tourette syndrome may be pathogenetically related.⁴¹ Tics are exacerbated by stress, and when the affected person tries harder to control the undesired movement, the conditions can become more pronounced. â€œTouretteâ€ redirects here. ... Tic may also refer to Tenancy in Common. ...

Onset and development

Stuttering is a developmental disorder. Children develop capabilities in a certain order, e.g., most children crawl before they walk. An unknown factor or combination of factors causes some children's speech to develop abnormally. As the child grows what appeared as a minor dysfunction can develop into a major disability. Developmental disorders are disorders that occur at some stage in a childs development, often retarding the development. ...

The mean onset of stuttering is 30 months, or two and a half years old.³⁰ Stuttering rarely begins after age six.

65% of preschoolers who stutter spontaneously recover, in their first two years of stuttering.³¹ Only 18% of children who stutter five years recover spontaneously.³² The peak age of recovery is 3.5 years old. By age six, a child is unlikely to recover without speech therapy.

Among preschoolers, boys who stutter outnumber girls who stutter about two to one, or less.³³ But more girls recover fluent speech, and more boys don't.³⁴ By fifth grade the ratio is about four boys who stutter to one girl who stutters. This ratio remains into adulthood.³⁵

Some pediatricians tell parents to "wait and see" if a child outgrows stuttering on his own. It has been recommended that children who stutter should instead be treated by a speech-language pathologist as soon as possible. ^{[citation needed]}

All children experience normal dysfluencies as they learn to talk, which they will outgrow. A current issue is whether stuttering develops progressively from normal childhood dysfluencies, or whether stuttering is something entirely different. Many parents are unsure whether their child's dysfluencies are normal, or whether he or she is beginning to stutter. The Stuttering Foundation of America has written and video materials to help parents differentiate normal dysfluencies from beginning stuttering. Or parents can consult a speech-language pathologist. Learn to Talk is a studio album by American experimental rock and jazz band Skeleton Crew, recorded at Sunrise Studio, Kirchberg, Switzerland, between Christmas and New Year 1983/1984. ...

To find a speech-language pathologist for your child, start by calling your school. American schools provide free speech therapy to children as young as three years old.

As speech and language are difficult and complex skills to learn, almost all children have some difficulty in developing these skills. This results in normal dysfluencies that tend to be single-syllable, whole-word or phrase repetitions, interjections, brief pauses, or revisions. In the early years, a child will not usually exhibit visible tension, frustration or anxiety when speaking dysfluently and most will be unaware of the interruptions in their speech. With young stutterers, their dysfluency tends to be episodic, and periods of stuttering are followed by periods of relative fluency. This pattern remains through all stages of a stutterer's development, but as the stutter develops, the dysfluencies tend to develop more into repetitions and sound prolongations, often combined together (e.g., "Lllllets g-g-go there"). Bold text This article does not cite any references or sources. ... An interjection, sometimes called a filled pause, is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. ...

Usually by the age of 6, a stutter is exacerbated when the child is excited, upset or under some type of pressure. Also around this age, a child will start to become aware of problems in his or her speech. After this age, stuttering includes repetitions, prolongations, and blocks. It also becomes more and more chronic, with longer periods of disfluency. Secondary motor behaviors (eye blinking, lip movements, etc.) may be used during moments of stuttering or frustration. Also, fear and avoidance of sounds, words, people, or speaking situations usually begin at this time, along with feelings of embarrassment and shame. By age 14 , the stutter is usually classified as an "Advanced stutter," characterized by frequent and noticeable interruptions, with poor eye contact and the use of various tricks to disguise the stuttering. Along with a mature stutter come advanced feelings of fear and increasingly frequent avoidance of unfavorable speaking situations. Around this time many become fully aware of their disorder and begin to identify themselves as "stutterers." With this may come deeper frustration, embarrassment and shame. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Gaze aversion. ...

It is important to note that stuttering does not affect intelligence and that stutterers are sometimes wrongly perceived as being less intelligent than non-stutterers. This is mainly due to the fact that stutterers often resort to a practice called word substitution, where words that are difficult for a stutterer to speak are replaced with less-suitable words with one or two syllables that are easier to pronounce. This often leads to simple, short, and awkward sentences which give an impression of feeble mindedness. A stutter may take longer to answer a question or respond, because it takes them longer to get a word out. They have to think about every word they are going to say and how they might modify that word so that a stuttering moment won't occur or won't be as intense. Stutters often feel great frustration because they know what they want to say, but can not translate it into spoken language using the same words they are thinking of or the way they would like to. They may also feel that non-stutters do not have the patience to wait and listen for the prolonged time it could take them to complete what they want to say. Stuttering is a communicative disorder that affects speech; it is not a language disorder—although a person's use of language is often affected or limited by a stutter.¹^,² Spoken language is a language that people utter words of the language. ... A communication disorder is a disease or condition that partially or totally prevents human communication. ...

Characteristics

Core and secondary behaviors

Core stuttering behaviors include disordered breathing, phonation (vocal fold vibration), and articulation (lips, jaw, and tongue). Typically these muscles are overtensed, making speech difficult or impossible.

Secondary stuttering behaviors are unrelated to speech production. Such behaviors include physical movements such as eye-blinking or head jerks; avoidance of feared words, such as substitution of another word; interjected "starter" sounds and words, such as "um," "ah," "you know,"; and vocal abnormalities to prevent stuttering, such as speaking in a rapid monotone, or affecting an accent.

Fluency

Speech fluency consist of three variables: continuity, rate, and ease of speaking. Continuity refers to speech that flows without hesitation or stoppage. Rate refers the speed in which the words are spoken. For English-speaking adults, the mean overall speaking rate is 170 words per minute (w/m), substantially quicker than the approximately 120 w/m that stutterers produce.¹ Ease of speaking refers to the amount of effort being expended to produce speech. Fluent speakers put very little muscular or physical effort into the act of speaking, while stutterers exert a relatively large amount of muscular effort to produce the same speech. In addition to the physical effort involved in producing speech, the mental effort is usually much greater in stutterers than non-stutterers.¹ Fluency is the property of a person or of a system that delivers information quickly and with expertise. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Disfluency in speech, including repetitions and prolongations, is normal for all speakers, but stuttering is distinct from normal disfluency in that it occurs with greater frequency and severity—the disfluencies occur much more often and tend to last longer with more strain. The types of disfluencies are also markedly different: normal disfluencies tend to be a repetition of whole words or the interjection of hesitation markers like "um" and "er," while stuttering tends to be repetition and prolongation of sounds and syllables. The various behaviors that can disrupt the smooth flow of speech include repetition, prolongations, and pauses:⁴ Speech disfluencies are any of various breaks, irregularities, or utterances that are often not consistent with any specific grammatical construction and occur within the flow of otherwise fluent speech. ...

Fricatives (or spirants) are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. ... The larynx (plural larynges), colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the neck of mammals involved in protection of the trachea and sound production. ... An interjection is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. ...

Avoidance behavior

When stuttering, stutterers will often use nonsense syllables or less-appropriate (but easier to say) words to ease into the flow of speech. Stutterers also may use various personal tricks to overcome stuttering or blocks at the beginning of a sentence, after which their fluency can resume. Finger-tapping or head-scratching are two common examples of tricks, which are usually idiosyncratic and may look unusual to the listener. In addition to word substitution or the use of filled pauses, stutterers may also use starter devices to help them ease into fluency. A common practice is the timing of words with a rhythmic movement or other event. For instance, stutterers might snap their fingers as a starter device at the beginning of speech. These devices usually do work, but only for a short amount of time. Often a person who stutters will do something at some point to avoid, postpone, or disguise a stutter and, by coincidence, will not stutter. The stutterer then makes a cause-effect connection between that new behavior and the release of the stuttering, and the behavior becomes a habit.⁴ It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ...

As stutterers often resort to word substitution in order to avoid stuttering, some develop an entire vocabulary of easy-to-pronounce words in order to maintain fluent speech—sometimes so well that no one, not even their spouses or friends, know that they have a stutter. Stutterers who successfully use this method are called "covert stutterers" or "closet stutterers". While they do not actually stutter in speech they nevertheless suffer greatly from their speech disorder. The extra effort it takes to scan ahead for feared words or sounds is stressful, and the replacement word is usually not as adequate a choice as the stutterer originally intended. Some stutterers have even changed their own given name because it contains a difficult-to-pronounce sound and frequently leads to embarrassing situations. Look up Appendix:Most popular given names by country in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Although this action may appear unusual or unreasoned to a fluent speaker, to a stutterer they come as second nature: due to the embarrassment and fear associated with speaking, many stutterers will wish to hide their stutter from listeners. This is the prime reason for avoidance.

Severity

When the behaviors of a stutter are infrequent, brief, and are not accompanied by substantial avoidance behavior, the stutter is usually classified as a mild or a non-chronic stutter. Non-chronic stuttering is often called "situational stuttering" because the afflicted person generally has difficulty speaking only in isolated situations—usually during public speaking or other stressful activities—and outside of these situations the person generally does not stutter. When the behaviors are frequent, long in duration, or when there are visible signs of struggle and avoidance behavior, the stutter is classified as a severe or chronic stutter. Unlike mild or situational stuttering, chronic stuttering is present in most situations, but can be either exacerbated or eased depending on different conditions (see Positive conditions). Severe stutters often, but not always, are accompanied by strong feelings and emotions in reaction to the problem such as anxiety, shame, fear, self-hatred, etc. This is usually less present in mild stutterers and serves as another criteria by which to define stutters as mild or severe. Another way of discerning between the two severities is by percentage of disfluency per 100 words. When a speaker experiences disfluencies at a rate around 10%, they usually have a mild stutter, while 15% or more is usually indicative of a severe stutter.² In addition to the disfluency, many people who stutter display secondary motor behaviors. Observers often notice muscles tensing up, facial and neck tics, excessive eye blinking, and lip and tongue tremors. In extreme cases entire body movements may accompany stuttering. Most common with stutterers is the inability to maintain eye contact with the listener, which in many cultures may hamper the growth of personal or professional relationships. â€œStutterâ€ redirects here. ... Self-hatred, self-loathing, also sometimes autophobia refers to an extreme dislike of oneself, or being angry at oneself. ... Tic may also refer to Tenancy in Common. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Gaze aversion. ...

It is worth noting that the severity of a stutter is not constant and that stutterers often go through weeks or months of substantially increased or decreased fluency. Stutterers universally report having "good days" and "bad days" and report dramatically increased or decreased fluency in specific situations. Below is an overview of the circumstances that harm and help the fluency of most stutterers:

Positive conditions

Subtle changes in mood or attitude often greatly increase or decrease fluency, with many stutterers developing tricks or methods to achieve temporary fluency. Stutterers commonly report dramatically increased fluency when singing, whispering or starting speech from a whisper, speaking extremely slowly, speaking in chorus, speaking without hearing their own voice (e.g., speaking over loud music), speaking with a metronome or other rhythm, speaking with an artificial accent or voice, speaking in a foreign dialect, or when speaking while hearing their own voice with a delay or pitch change. (See Treatments.) Stutterers also display increased fluency when speaking to nonjudgmental listeners, such as pets, children, or speech pathologists. It is perhaps most interesting to note that most stutterers experience extraordinary levels of fluency when talking to themselves. A rare few even experience increased fluency when they exclusively "have the floor" (public speaking or teaching), when they are intoxicated, or when they are explicitly trying to stutter. There is no universally accepted explanation for these phenomena. Unfortunately, non-stutterers often interpret such instances of fluency as evidence that a stutterer can in fact speak "normally", which may partly explain the popular belief that stuttering is a transient nervous condition. Nevertheless, the appearance of fluency in certain situations in no way indicates that a stutterer can consciously produce similar fluency at other times, or that the disorder is any less "real". Attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individuals like or dislike for an item. ... A mechanical wind-up metronome in motion A digital metronome set to pulse at four beats per measure at a tempo of 130 BPM A metronome is any device that produces a regulated audible and/or visual pulse, usually used to establish a steady beat, or tempo, measured in beats... Rhythm (Greek = flow, or in Modern Greek, style) is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A dialect (from the Greek word Î´Î¹Î¬Î»ÎµÎºÏ„Î¿Ï‚, dialektos) is a variety of a language characteristic of a particular group of the languages speakers. ... â€œStutterâ€ redirects here. ... Pets and humans often contribute toward the happiness of the other in a pet relationship. ... Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. ... ...

Negative conditions

All speech is more difficult when under pressure. Commonly, social pressures, like speaking to a group, speaking to strangers, speaking on the telephone, or speaking to authority figures, will irritate and make worse a stutter. Also, time pressure often exacerbates a stutter. Pressure to speak quickly when answering or conversing is usually very difficult for a stutterer, particularly on the telephone where stutterers do not have body language to aid themselves. This usually leaves dead silence in the place of nonverbal communication, which will indicate to the listener that the stutterer is not there or the line has been disconnected. Other time pressures will also worsen a stutter, such as saying one's own name, which must be done without hesitation to avoid the appearance that one does not know his or her own name, repeating something just said, or speaking when somebody is waiting for a response. Getting hot or sweaty, heart pounding, and butterflies in the stomach are natural - the body responds to strong emotions. The problem is they tend to make things worse by making one even more self-conscious. By 16 years of age, a person who stammers will have had a great deal of experience of stammering and, for many, these experiences have been quite negative. The ever-present threat of being teased, bullied or not accepted takes a tremendous toll on the stutterer's everyday life. A person dealing with this may often feel like he or she has limited opportunities and options since today speaking out in public is almost a necessity, especially when one wants to be successful in one's career. For other uses, see Telephone (disambiguation). ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Everyday life is the sum total of every aspect of common human life as it is routinely lived. ...

Adult treatments

A wide variety of stuttering treatments are available. No single treatment is effective for every stutterer. This suggests that stuttering doesn't have a single cause, but rather is the result of several interacting factors. If so, then combining several stuttering treatments may be more effective than relying on a single treatment. Many speech-language pathologists favor such an integrated approach to stuttering, and tailor therapy to each individuals' needs.

Fluency shaping therapy

Fluency shaping therapy trains stutterers to speak fluently by relaxing their breathing, vocal folds, and articulation (lips, jaw, and tongue).

Stutterers are usually trained to breathe with their diaphragms, gently increase vocal fold tension at the beginning of words (gentle onsets), slow their speaking rate by stretching vowels, and reduce articulatory pressure. The result is slow, monotonic, but fluent speech. This abnormal-sounding speech is used only in the speech clinic. After the stutterer masters these target speech behaviors, speaking rate and prosody (emotional intonation) are increased, until the stutterer sounds normal. This normal-sounding, fluent speech is then transferred to daily life outside the speech clinic.

A study followed 42 stutterers through the three-week fluency shaping program. The program also included psychological treatment to reduce fears and avoidances, discussing stuttering openly, and changing social habits to increase speaking. The therapy program reduced stuttering from about 15–20% stuttered syllables to 1–2% stuttered syllables. 12 to 24 months after therapy, about 70% of the stutterers had satisfactory fluency. About 5% were marginally successful. About 25% had unsatisfactory fluency.¹⁹

Stuttering modification therapy

The goal of stuttering modification therapy is not to eliminate stuttering. Instead, the goals are to modify one's moments of stuttering, so that their stuttering is less severe; and reduce their fear of stuttering, while eliminating avoidance behaviors associated with this fear. Unlike fluency shaping therapy, stuttering modification therapy assumes that adult stutterers will never be able to speak fluently, so the goal is to be an effective communicator despite stuttering.

Only one long-term efficacy study of a stuttering modification therapy program has been published in a peer-reviewed journal. This study concluded that the program "appears to be ineffective in producing durable improvements in stuttering behaviors."²⁰

Anti-stuttering devices

Changing how a stutterer hears his or her voice usually improves his or her fluency. This altered auditory feedback effect appears to be related to the central auditory processing disorder seen in adult stutterers' brain scans; however, more research is needed in this area.

The altered auditory feedback effect can be produced by speaking in chorus with another person, or by hearing one's voice echo in a well. However, this effect is now usually produced with electronic devices. The three most common types of altered auditory feedback are:

DAF and FAF immediately reduce stuttering about 70–80%, at normal speaking rates, without training or therapy, and with normal-sounding speech.¹⁵ No study has measured the effects of MAF, but MAF has an advantage over DAF and FAF in that it can pull users out of silent blocks. Delayed auditory feedback (DAF), is a device that contains both a speaker and headphones. ...

Several long-term studies found excellent results when DAF devices were combined with fluency shaping therapy.¹⁶ Two studies investigated long-term effects of anti-stuttering devices without therapy. In the first study, nine adult stutterers used DAF devices thirty minutes per day, for three months.¹⁷ Image File history File links SchoolDAF-small. ... Image File history File links SchoolDAF-small. ...

The immediate result was 70% reduction in stuttered words. Three months later there was no statistically significant "wearing off" of effectiveness when using the devices. When not using the devices the subjects stuttered 55% less. In other words, the subjects developed carryover fluency the rest of the day, when they weren't using the devices, training the subjects to no longer need the devices.

In a second study, nine stutterers used a DAF/FAF device about seven hours per day. Their fluency was measured after four months and after twelve months.¹⁸

The second device reduced stuttered syllables about 80%, when the device was used. This effect was maintained over the twelve months, with no statistically significant "wearing off" of effectiveness. But no carryover effect was seen. In other words, when the subjects removed the device they went back to stuttering. Image File history File links SpeechEasy-small. ... Image File history File links SpeechEasy-small. ...

Taxpayer-funded programs in about fifteen American states provide DAF/FAF anti-stuttering telephone devices free to qualified stutterers.⁴²

Anti-stuttering medications

Several dopamine antagonist medications reduced stuttering in double-blind, placebo-controlled studies, including Haloperidol (Haldol), risperidone (Risperdal),¹² and olanzapine (Zyprexa).¹³ These medications generally reduce stuttering 33–50%. Haldol is rarely, if ever, used by stutterers due to severe side effects. Risperdal and Zyprexa have fewer side effects. None of these drugs are FDA-approved for stuttering. A dopamine antagonist is a drug which blocks dopamine receptors (of which there are five types in the human body; they are found in the brain, peripheral nervous system, blood vessels, and the kidney). ... The double blind is ray charles is ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesis ray charlesof the scientific method, used to prevent research...

Clinical trials are underway for what could be the first FDA-approved anti-stuttering medications. Pagoclone is a gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) selective receptor modulator. Dopamine and GABA are both neurotransmitters.¹⁴ Gamma-aminobutyric acid (usually abbreviated to GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the nervous systems of widely divergent species. ...

Other medications can increase stuttering, or even cause a person to start stuttering. Such medications include dopamine agonists such as Ritalin and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) such as Prozac and Zoloft.

Media publicity about stuttering "cures"

Reports about successful stuttering treatment are not rare in contemporary media, particularly in television news programs and talk shows, since stories about recovery from stuttering have a strong emotional appeal. Media reports have typically focused on dramatic treatments such as the fluency-shaping method of therapy and, more recently, electronic fluency aids. Although such treatments may increase fluency in some stutterers, media reports seldom examine either the long-term efficacy of these treatments or their effect on stutterers of differing severity. As a result, media reports usually imply that such therapies are miracle cures. (Significantly, licensed speech pathologists who provide these treatments routinely emphasize that they are not "cures".) Indeed, anecdotal evidence suggests that media attention to such treatments may actually have a negative effect on the public perception of stutterers: for example, after an uncritical media report creates the myth of a newly available "cure", non-stuttering family members and workplace superiors may penalize or put pressure on a stutterer for not having his or her speech impediment "cured". Anecdotal evidence is an informal account of evidence in the form of an anecdote, or hearsay. ...

Childhood treatments

Therapies for pre-school children

In the past, stuttering children received indirect therapy, which changed the parents' speech behaviors. Such indirect therapy has been proven ineffective. For example, popular websites²¹ ²² advise that parents should "speak slowly and in a relaxed manner"; make positive statements such as praise, and refrain from negative statements such as criticism; "pause before responding to your child's questions or comments," etc. Yet more than a dozen studies²³ found that such parental behavior had no effect on children's stuttering—or the effect was the opposite of what the parents intended. For example, when parents spoke slower, their children spoke faster and their stuttering increased.²⁴

Speech-language pathologists now recommend direct therapy with young children. The target speech behaviors are similar to fluency shaping therapy, but various toys and games are used. For example, a turtle hand puppet may be used to train the slow speech with stretched syllables goal. When the child speaks slowly, the turtle slowly walks along. But when the child talks too fast, the turtle retreats into his shell.

Therapies for school-age children

A study of 98 children, 9 to 14 years old, compared three types of stuttering therapy.²⁵ One year after therapy, the percentage of children with disfluency rates under 2% were:

The results for children with disfluency rates under 1% were even more striking:

In other words, the computers were most effective, the parents next most effective, and the speech-language pathologists were least effective. At the 1% disfluency level, the computers and the parents were about four times more effective than the speech-language pathologists.

Parents should realize that school speech-language pathologists are trained to treat a wide variety of speech and language disorders. Many don't have training or experience with stuttering, and few specialize in stuttering. Many school districts are underfunded and school speech-language pathologists have caseloads of 40 or more children, seeing each child for perhaps twenty minutes twice a week, or even doing group therapy with several children who have different communication disorders. Parents whose child's speech isn't improving may want to consider additional treatments beyond their school's speech-language pathologist: Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy during which one or several therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group. ...

Therapies for teenagers

One strategy for treating teenagers who stutter is to include peers in therapy. This is usually the teenager's best friend. This can improve the stuttering teenager's motivation in therapy, and also the friend can give reminders outside of therapy for the stuttering teenager to use his speech target behaviors.

Another strategy is to encourage a stuttering teenager to develop a passion for an activity requiring speech. This could be getting involved in the school's drama club, or doing a science project about stuttering. Bully programs have sometimes told kids not to beat up kids who stutter.

Stuttering and society

For centuries stuttering has often featured prominently in both popular culture and in society at large. Because of the unusual-sounding speech that is produced, as well as the behaviors and attitudes that accompany a stutter, stuttering has frequently been a subject of scientific interest, curiosity, discrimination, and ridicule. Stuttering was, and essentially still is, a riddle with a long history of interest and speculation into its causes and cures. Stutterers can be traced back centuries to the likes of Demosthenes, Aesop, and Aristotle—some interpret a passage of the Bible to indicate Moses also to have been a stutterer.⁵ Misinformation and superstition have influenced society's perceptions of the causes and remedies of a stutter, as well as the intelligence and perceived disposition of people afflicted with the disorder. Popular culture, sometimes called pop culture, consists of widespread cultural elements in any given society. ... Young people interacting within an ethnically diverse society. ... Demosthenes (384â€“322 BC, Greek: Î”Î·Î¼Î¿ÏƒÎ¸ÎÎ½Î·Ï‚, DÄ“mosthÃ©nÄ“s) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. ... Aesop, as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle by Hartmann Schedel in 1493. ... Aristotle (Greek: AristotÃ©lÄ“s) (384 BC â€“ 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ...

Partly due to a perceived lack of intelligence because of his stutter, the man who became the Roman Emperor Claudius was initially shunned from the public eye and excluded from public office. This exclusion from public life suited his inclination towards the academic and gave him time for study. His infirmity is also thought to have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligula. By studying history, Claudius became very knowledgeable about governmental institutions, which later aided him as an emperor. Isaac Newton, the famous English scientist who developed the law of gravity, also had a stutter. Other famous Englishmen who stammered were King George VI and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who led the UK through World War II. Although George VI went through years of speech therapy for his stammer, Churchill thought that his own very mild stutter added an interesting element to his voice: "Sometimes a slight and not unpleasing stammer or impediment has been of some assistance in securing the attention of the audience…"¹⁰ Photo of Lewis Carroll taken by Lewis Carroll himself. ... Photo of Lewis Carroll taken by Lewis Carroll himself. ... â€œAlice in Wonderlandâ€ redirects here. ... Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll) â€“ believed to be a self-portrait Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (IPA: ) (January 27, 1832 â€“ January 14, 1898), better known by the pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican clergyman and photographer. ... For other uses, see Dodo (disambiguation). ... Martin Gardner (b. ... The Dodo is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book Alices Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ... Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 â€“ January 24, 41), more commonly known by his nickname Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 37 to 41 . ... Sir Isaac Newton FRS (4 January 1643 â€“ 31 March 1728) [ OS: 25 December 1642 â€“ 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 â€“ 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions from 11 December 1936 until his death. ... The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is, in practice, the political leader of the United Kingdom. ... â€œChurchillâ€ redirects here. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Porky Pig on Looney Tunes. ... Porky Pig on Looney Tunes. ... Porky Pig is an Academy Award-nominated animated cartoon character in the Warner Bros. ... Looney Tunes opening title Looney Tunes is a Warner Brothers animated cartoon series which ran in many movie theatres from 1930 to 1969. ... Melvin Jerome Blanc (May 30, 1908 â€“ July 10, 1989) was a prolific American voice actor, performing on radio, in television commercials, and most famously, in hundreds of cartoon shorts for Warner Bros. ... â€œWBâ€ redirects here. ...

Ancient views of stuttering

For centuries "cures" such as speaking with a pebble in the mouth (as per the legendary orator Demosthenes), consistently drinking water from a snail shell for the rest of one's life, "hitting a stutterer in the face when the weather is cloudy", strengthening the tongue as a muscle, and various herbal remedies were often used⁶ ; clearly to little effect. Demosthenes (384â€“322 BC, Greek: Î”Î·Î¼Î¿ÏƒÎ¸ÎÎ½Î·Ï‚, DÄ“mosthÃ©nÄ“s) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. ... The name snail applies to most members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have coiled shells. ... Dioscoridesâ€™ Materia Medica, c. ...

Similarly, in the past people have subscribed to various theories about the causes of stuttering which today one might consider odd. Proposed causes of stuttering have included tickling an infant too much, eating improperly during breastfeeding, allowing an infant to look in the mirror, cutting a child's hair before the child spoke his or her first words, having too small a tongue, or the "work of the devil."³ A young girl tickles her sibling, evoking a pleasurable response in the child being tickled. ... Breastfeeding an infant Symbol for breastfeeding (Matt Daigle, Mothering magazine contest winner 2006) Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a womans breasts. ...

Roman physicians attributed stuttering to an imbalance of the four bodily humors: yellow bile, blood, black bile, and phlegm. Humoral manipulation continued to be a dominant treatment for stuttering until the eighteenth century. Italian pathologist Giovanni Morgagni attributed stuttering to deviations in the hyoid bone, a conclusion he came to via autopsy. Later in the century, surgical intervention, via resection of a triangular wedge from the posterior tongue to prevent spasms of the tongue, was also tried. Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... The word physician should not be confused with physicist, which means a scientist in the area of physics. ... The four humours were four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Giovanni Battista Morgagni (February 25, 1682 - December 6, 1771), Italian anatomist, was born on at ForIi. ... The hyoid bone (Os Hyoideum; Lingual Bone) is a bone in the human neck, not articulated to any other bone; it is supported by the muscles of the neck and in turn supports the root of the tongue. ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ...

Blessed Notker of St. Gall (ca. 840–912), called Balbulus (“The Stutterer”) and described by his biographer as being "delicate of body but not of mind, stuttering of tongue but not of intellect, pushing boldly forward in things Divine," was invoked against stammering. Image File history File links Notker_Balbulus_2. ... Image File history File links Notker_Balbulus_2. ... Notker of St. ...

Stuttering in the media

Film

In more recent times, movies such as A Fish Called Wanda (1988) and A Family Thing (1996) have dealt with contemporary reactions to and portrayals of stuttering. In A Fish Called Wanda, a lead character, played by Michael Palin, has a severe stutter and low self-esteem. His character—who is socially awkward, nervous, an animal lover, and reclusive—portrays a prevalent stereotypical image of stutterers. The three other characters in the movie generally make up the spectrum of reactions to stuttering: Jamie Lee Curtis's character is sympathetic and sees past it, John Cleese's character is polite but indifferent, and Kevin Kline's is malicious and sadistic. Upon release the film caused controversy among some stutterers who disliked the film for its portrayal of Palin's character as a pushover amid the bullying his character receives, and received favor from others who valued the film for showing the difficulties stutterers commonly face. Palin, whose father was a stutterer, stated that in playing the role he intended to show how difficult and painful stuttering can be. He also donated to various stuttering-related causes and later founded the Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children in London. A Fish Called Wanda is a movie released in 1988 by MGM. It was written by John Cleese and directed by Charles Crichton. ... A Family Thing is a 1996 film starring Robert Duvall, James Earl Jones and Irma P. Hall. ... Michael Edward Palin, CBE (born 5 May 1943) is an English comedian, actor, writer and television presenter best known for being one of the members of the comedy group Monty Python and for his travel documentaries. ... Jamie Lee Curtis (born November 22, 1958) is an American film actress and an author of childrens books. ... John Marwood Cleese (born 27 October 1939) is an Academy Award-nominated and Emmy Award winning English comedian and actor. ... Kevin Delaney Kline (born October 24, 1947) is an Academy Award- and Tony Award-winning American stage and film actor. ... Bullying is the tormenting of others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ...

The 1983 movie The Right Stuff referenced the real-life stuttering problem of John Glenn's wife Annie, and how it rendered her fearful and unwilling to do a news conference during his initial space flight. As he reported in his autobiography, John Glenn: A Memoir, and as shown on-screen in The Right Stuff, her stuttering was never a problem between the two of them, he "just thought of it as something Annie did". But she grew frustrated with it, and some years later put herself through intense speech therapy and was largely successful in masking the outward symptoms of stuttering. A proud moment for the both of them was the first public speech she gave on her experiences as a stutterer. The Right Stuff is a 1979 book (ISBN 0374250332) by Tom Wolfe, and a 1983 film adapted from the book. ... For other persons named John Glenn, see John Glenn (disambiguation). ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ...

The book (and film) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest has a major character named Billy Bibbit who suffers from a pronounced stutter. Through the story it is revealed that it has very negatively impacted his self-esteem (even leading to a suicide attempt when he stuttered through a marriage proposal and the woman laughed at him). The stutter abruptly disappears after he has sex with a prostitute that another patient smuggles on the ward. One Flew Over the Cuckooâ€™s Nest can refer to: One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest (novel), a 1962 fiction novel by Ken Kesey One Attempted to Fly Over the Cuckoos Nest But Didnt Give Himself Enough Clearing Room, (film), a 1975 film adaptation of the novel One...

In the film Rocket Science, the main character Hal Hefner suffers from stuttering.

In M. Night Shyamalan's 2006 film Lady in the Water, Paul Giamatti's character has a pronounced stutter that selectively disappears when he interacts with Bryce Dallas Howard's character. Lady in the Water is a 2006 thriller/fantasy film written, produced, and directed by M. Night Shyamalan and also produced by Sam Mercer and Jose L. Rodriguez. ... Paul Edward Valentine Giamatti (born June 6, 1967) is an Academy Award-nominated American actor. ... Bryce Dallas Howard (born March 2, 1981) is an American actress best known for her film roles in the M. Night Shyamalan-directed The Village and Lady in the Water, and as Gwen Stacy in Sam Raimis Spider-Man 3. ...

In Stephen Kings "IT" the character William 'Stuttering Bill' Denbrough had a stuttering problem which "Got worse since his kid brother died." Throughout the movie he stutters profusely usually when he gets scared or nervous. In the second half of the film he overcame his speech impediment which was brought back seconds after Mike Hanlen tells the news of Pennywise's return.

Television

An episode of the hit TV Show M*A*S*H involved a stuttering soldier who was convinced he was unintelligent and constantly harassed by his fellow soldiers. The usually pompous Maj. Winchester (David Ogden Stiers) takes it upon himself to prove the soldier is just as intelligent (if not more, since Winchester discovers the young man has a very high IQ) as the rest of his unit, even giving him a treasured copy of Moby-Dick to read. At the end of the episode, Winchester retires to his tent and listens happily to a tape-recorded letter from his sister, who is revealed to have a pronounced stutter. Also, Ronnie Barker's character in Open All Hours has a stutter, which sometimes gets him into trouble. His nephew mocks him for it. Another example is actor Nicholas Brendon, who played Xander Harris on Buffy the Vampire Slayer for seven consecutive seasons. Nicholas overcame his stuttering problem and is now a spokesperson for the Stuttering Foundation of America. Plus, on South Park a physically disabled character named Jimmy Vulmer suffers an albeit severe stutter that seems to play a comical role on the show. Moby-Dick book cover Moby-Dick - the official title of the first edition - is a novel by Herman Melville. ... Ronnie Barker Ronald William George Barker OBE (September 25, 1929 â€“ October 3, 2005), popularly known as Ronnie Barker and (as a writer) Gerald Wiley , was an English comic actor and writer. ... Open All Hours was a BBC sitcom written by Roy Clarke which ran for four series (26 episodes in all) between 1976 and 1985, with a pilot episode from the Seven of One series in 1973. ... Nicholas Brendon (born April 12, 1971 as Nicholas Brendon Schultz in Los Angeles, California), is an actor best known for his character Xander Harris in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997-2003). ... Alexander LaVelle Xander Harris (born 1981 in Sunnydale, California) is a fictional character in the cult television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. ... For other uses, see Buffy the Vampire Slayer (disambiguation). ... This article is about the TV series. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Music

"K-K-K-Katy" was published in 1918 by Geoffrey O'Hara and became a huge hit in wartime America, referred to as "The Sensational Stammering Song Success Sung by the Soldiers and Sailors". Anyone who had either a stutter or a lisp was covered. The song uses stuttered lyrics in every line of the chorus, and refers to the stuttering of a stereotypically bashful suitor. This page is a candidate to be moved to Wikisource. ... Geoffrey OHara (February 2, 1882 - January 31, 1967) was a Canadian American composer, singer and music professor. ... A lisp is a speech impediment. ...

Alvin Lucier's 1969 experimental piece I Am Sitting in a Room prominently features his stuttering, as well as making reference to it in the spoken lyrics: "I regard this activity ... as a way to smooth out any irregularities my speech might have." Alvin Lucier Alvin Lucier (born May 14, 1931) is an American composer of music and sound installations exploring acoustic phenomena, especially resonance, as well as a former member of the Sonic Arts Union along with Robert Ashley, David Behrman, and Gordon Mumma. ... I am sitting in a room (1970) is one of composer Alvin Luciers best known works, featuring Lucier recording himself narrating a text, and then playing the recording back into the room, re-recording it. ...

A stylized form of stuttering has frequently appeared in popular music over the past few decades. Buddy Holly was a notable user of this technique in many of his songs, as well as supplementing the stutters with other verbal 'tics' and 'hiccups'. In some songs from the 1960s and 1970s the vocalist would rapidly repeat the first syllable of a word. An early example is The Who's 1965 song "My Generation", in which Roger Daltrey sings the line "Just talkin' 'bout my G-g-g-generation". In that particular case, the song's stuttering style provides a framework leading up to the sly lyric, "Why don't you just ff-ff-fffffffffade away!" Popular music is music belonging to any of a number of musical styles that are accessible to the general public and are disseminated by one or more of the mass media. ... Charles Hardin Holley (September 7, 1936 â€“ February 3, 1959),[1] better known as Buddy Holly, was an American singer, songwriter, and a pioneer of rock and roll. ... The Who are an English rock band that first formed in 1964, and grew to be considered one of the greatest[1] and most influential[2] bands in the world. ... This article is about the song. ... Roger Harry Daltrey, CBE (born 1 March 1944) is a rock vocalist, songwriter, and actor, best known as the founder and lead singer of English rock band The Who. ...

Another example was the affected stuttering by Canada's Bachman-Turner Overdrive in their 1974 hit song "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet". The stutter was not intended to be part of the final release, it was originally done as a joke about Randy Bachman's brother George, who stuttered. Bachman-Turner Overdrive (BTO) is a Canadian rock group from Winnipeg, Manitoba that enjoyed a string of hit albums and singles in the 1970s. ... You Aint Seen Nothing Yet is a song by Bachman Turner Overdrive off the album Not Fragile. ... Randoph Charles Bachman, OM (born September 27, 1943) was lead guitarist and songwriter of the 1970s rock band, The Guess Who, and later formed the famous hard rock band Bachman-Turner Overdrive with his brothers Robbie Bachman, drums, Tim Bachman, rhythm guitar and friend Fred Turner on bass and lead...

By the early 1980s producers were creating the same effect synthetically using tape editing and sampling of lyrics. Paul Hardcastle's 1985 song "19" features it throughout in both the spoken word and vocal segments. Remixes of songs very frequently employed the effect. Starting in the 1990s stuttering effects fell out of popular use in music. Tape editing is the art of manipulating the sequence of sounds on audiotape by cutting the tape and rearranging and splicing together the pieces. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Paul Hardcastle (born December 10, 1957, in London) is an English composer and musician specializing in the synthesizer. ... A remix is an alternative version of a song, different from the original version. ...

In 1995, stutterer Scatman John turned his problem into his asset and wrote the hit song "Scatman". Stuttering assisted him to scat sing and create incredible sounds. The lyrics are inspirational and directed at stutterers: This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Scatman (Ski Ba Dop Ba Dop Bop) (often just called Scatman) is the debut and most successful single from Scatman John. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

In 2001, "Stutter" by American R&B singer Joe featuring Mystikal, held the number-one spot for four weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. Stutter is a 2000 song by American R&B singer Joe. ... Rhythm and blues (or R & B) is a musical marketing term introduced in the United States in the late 1940s by Billboard magazine. ... Joe is a common diminutive form of the name Joseph. // Joe (given name), people with Joe as a given name Uncle Joe, a nickname for Soviet leader Joseph Stalin Samoa Joe, an American professional wrestler, currently performing for TNA. Joe is the preferred nickname of Thai filmmaker Apichatpong Weerasethakul Joe... This article contains a trivia section. ... â€œHot 100â€ redirects here. ...

Placebo used a stammering man's voice on their song "Swallow" featured on their 1996 debut album, Placebo. Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Placebo is the self titled debut album by British rock band Placebo, released on the Virgin Records label on July 16, 1996. ...

The song For You I Will (Confidence) by American pop singer Teddy Geiger features the line "forgive me if i st-- stutter from all of the clutter in my head" American Pop is a 1981 American animated film directed by Ralph Bakshi. ... Teddy Geiger (born John Theodore Teddy Geiger II on September 16, 1988 in Rochester, New York is a American singer and songwriter. ...

The lead singer of indie band Bloc Party, Kele Okereke, has a very pronounced stutter when speaking, but it is not identifiable whilst singing. Bloc Party are a British indie rock band. ... Kele Okereke (born Kelechukwu Rowland Okereke October 13, 1981 in Liverpool), is the vocalist and guitarist for English art rock band Bloc Party. ...

"Stuttering John"

Though a stutterer might seem to be an unlikely radio star, Howard Stern hired a mild stutterer sight unseen ("He stutters? Hire him.") to conduct celebrity interviews. Known on the Stern show as Stuttering John, John Melendez worked for Stern for 15 years before taking a position as the announcer on The Tonight Show. Howard Stern also has a collection of frequent guests, many of whom have speech impediments of some type; while their afflictions are exploited for comedic purposes, members of The Wack Pack are well-loved by Howard Stern and his fans. This article is a biography of Howard Stern as an individual; for information regarding his radio show see The Howard Stern Show. ... The Howard Stern Show is Howard Sterns radio show heard four days (Mondayâ€“Thursday) a week on Howard 100 (West Coast feed on channel Howard 101), a Sirius Satellite Radio station. ... John Melendez (Born October 4, 1965) a. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Continuity announcer. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Wack Pack is the name given to a wide assortment of regular guests of The Howard Stern Show. ... The Wack Pack is the name given to a wide assortment of regular guests of The Howard Stern Show. ...

Discrimination

In addition to personal feelings of shame or anxiety, outside discrimination is still a significant problem for stutterers. The vast majority of stutterers experience or have experienced bullying, harassment, or ridicule to some degree during their school years from both peers and teachers who do not understand the condition.¹¹ It can be especially difficult for stutterers to form friendships or romantic relationships, both because stutterers may avoid social exposure and because non-stutterers may find the disorder unattractive. The stigma of stuttering carries over into the workplace, often resulting in severe employment discrimination against stutterers. Consequently, stuttering has been legally classified as a disability in many parts of the world, affording stutterers the same protection from wrongful discrimination as for people with other disabilities. The UK Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 both expressly protect stutterers from wrongful dismissal or discrimination. [2] [3] Bullying is the tormenting of others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation. ... Employment discrimination refers to employment practices that are prohibited by law such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, compensation, and various types of harassment. ... The Disability Discrimination Act is a UK parliamentary act of 1995, which makes it unlawful to discriminate against people in respect of their disabilities in relation to employment, the provision of goods and services, education and transport. ... The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is the short title of United States Public Law 101-336, 104 Stat. ... Wrongful dismissal is an idiom and legal phrase, describing a situation in which an employees contract of employment has been terminated by the employer in circumstances where the termination breaches one or more terms of the contract of employment, or a statute provision in employment law. ...

Along with disability legislation, many stutterer rights groups have formed to address these issues. One interesting example is the Turkish Association of Disabled Persons, which successfully appealed to the major Turkish telephone company Telsim, resulting in reduced rates for people with stutters or other speech disabilities because of the additional time it takes them to converse on the telephone.[4] Also, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution in May 1988 designating the second week of May as Stuttering Awareness Week, while International Stuttering Awareness Day, or ISAD, is held internationally on October 22. In September 2005, ISAD was recognised and supported by over 30 Members of the European Parliament (MEPS) at a reception given by the European League of Stuttering Associations. A telephone company (or telco) provides telecommunications services such as telephony and data communications. ... Telsim is a mobile phone operator in Turkey, currently the countrys second largest. ... The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America. ... October 22 was designated International Stuttering Awareness Day (ISAD) in 1998. ... is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Even though public awareness of stuttering has improved markedly over the years, misconceptions are still very common, usually reinforced by inaccurate media portrayals of stuttering and by various folk myths. A 2002 study focusing on college-age students and conducted by University of Minnesota Duluth found that a large majority viewed the cause of stuttering as either nervousness or low self-confidence, and many recommended simply "slowing down" as the best course of action for recovery.⁷ While these misconceptions are damaging and may actually worsen the symptoms of stuttering, groups and organizations are making significant progress towards a greater public awareness. Folklore is the ethnographic concept of the tales, legends, or superstitions current among a particular ethnic population, a part of the oral history of a particular culture. ... The University of Minnesota Duluth (UMD) is a regional university part of the University of Minnesota System located in Duluth, Minnesota. ...

See also

List of famous people who had or have a stutter, and pop culture about stuttering. ... The Monster Study was a stuttering experiment on 22 orphan children in Davenport, Iowa, in 1939 conducted by Wendell Johnson at the University of Iowa. ... This article is about developmental dyslexia. ... Speech processing is the study of speech signals and the processing methods of these signals. ... The Stuttering Foundation of America, based in Memphis, Tenn. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei in the brain interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and brainstem. ...

Notes

is the 87th day of the year (88th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 82nd day of the year (83rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Adoration of the Golden Calf by Nicolas Poussin Aaron (Hebrew: , Standard Tiberian ), or Aaron the Levite (flourished about 1200 B.C.), was, according to biblical accounts, one of two brothers who play a unique part in the history of the Hebrew people. ... is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 94th day of the year (95th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 95th day of the year (96th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Front page of Guardian Unlimited from August 16, 2005 Guardian Unlimited is a British website owned by the Guardian Media Group. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dalhousie University is a university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. ... Motto: {{Unhide = {{{}}}}} E Mari Merces (Wealth from the Sea) Logo: Location City Information Established: April 1, 1996 Area: urban area 79. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 162nd day of the year (163rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) previously known as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the worlds population. ... Oppositional defiant disorder is a controversial psychiatric category listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders where it is described as an ongoing pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behavior toward authority figures that goes beyond the bounds of normal childhood behavior. ... Positron emission is a type of beta decay, sometimes referred to as beta plus (Î²+). In beta plus decay, a proton is converted to a neutron via the weak nuclear force and a beta plus particle (a positron) and a neutrino are emitted. ... is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ...

References

External links

Categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | Spoken articles | Speech impediments Image File history File links En-Stuttering(part1of3). ... Image File history File links Sound-icon. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 16th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Image File history File links Sound-icon. ... Image File history File links Wikibooks-logo-en. ... Wikibooks logo Wikibooks, previously called Wikimedia Free Textbook Project and Wikimedia-Textbooks, is a wiki for the creation of books. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary (a portmanteau of wiki and dictionary) is a multilingual, Web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 150 languages. ... This article is considered orphaned, since there are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... The Open Directory Project (ODP), also known as dmoz (from , its original domain name), is a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links owned by Netscape that is constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors. ... The Open Directory Project (ODP), also known as dmoz (from , its original domain name), is a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links owned by Netscape that is constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors. ... The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) is a detailed description of known diseases and injuries. ... A mental disorder or mental illness is a clinically significant psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. ... Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is a broad category which is mostly being used in an educational context to group a range of more specific perceived difficulties of children and adolescents. ... For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ... Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes). ... Picks disease has two meanings that are often confused: 1) Pathology: Neurologists currently use the term Picks disease to mean specifically one of the pathological subtypes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). ... Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disorder (brain disease) that is ultimately fatal. ... AIDS dementia complex (ADC; also known as HIV dementia, HIV encephalopathy and HIV-associated dementia) has become a common neurological disorder associated with HIV infection and AIDS. It is is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of brain macrophages and microglia. ... This article is about the mental state and medical condition. ... Post-concussion syndrome, also known as postconcussive syndrome or PCS, is a set of symptoms that a person may experience for weeks, months, or even years after a concussion, a mild form of traumatic brain injury. ... A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical that alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness, or behaviour. ... ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Physical dependence refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug, where negative physical withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Opioid dependence is a medical diagnosis characterized by an individuals inability to stop using opioids even when objectively in his or her best interest to do so. ... Withdrawal, also known as withdrawal syndrome, refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes physical dependence is regularly used for a long time and then suddenly discontinued or decreased in dosage. ... Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, caused by withdrawal or dosage reduction of benzodiazepines, is the symptoms which appear when a patient who has taken the drug for a period of time stops taking the drug. ... For the beer, see Delirium Tremens (beer). ... Korsakoffs syndrome (Korsakoffs psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome), is a degenerative brain disorder caused by the lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the brain. ... Psychosis is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a loss of contact with reality. Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines psychosis as a severe mental disorder, with or without organic damage, characterized by derangement of personality and loss of contact with reality and causing deterioration... Disorganized schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... Schizotypal personality disorder, or simply schizotypal disorder, is a personality disorder that is characterized by a need for social isolation, odd behaviour and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs such as being convinced of having extra sensory abilities. ... Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre delusions in the absence of any other significant psychopathology (signs or symptoms of mental illness). ... Folie Ã deux (literally, a madness shared by two) is a rare psychiatric syndrome in which a symptom of psychosis (particularly a paranoid or delusional belief) is transmitted from one individual to another. ... A mood disorder is a condition whereby the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances. ... Mania is a severe medical condition characterized by extremely elevated mood, energy, and thought patterns. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... Clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder, or unipolar depression when compared to bipolar disorder) is a state of intense sadness, melancholia or despair that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individuals social functioning and/or activities of daily living. ... Cyclothymia is a mood disorder. ... Dysthymia (or dysthymic disorder) is a form of the mood disorder of depression characterized by a lack of enjoyment/pleasure in life that continues for at least two years. ... Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder which primarily consists of the fear of experiencing a difficult or embarrassing situation from which the sufferer cannot escape. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Panic Disorder is a psychiatric condition characterized by reccurring panic attacks in combination with significant behavioral change or at least a month of ongoing worry about the implications or concern about having other attacks. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Social anxiety, sometimes known as social phobia or social anxiety disorder (SAD), is a common form of anxiety disorder that causes sufferers to experience intense anxiety in some or all of the social interactions and public events of everyday life. ... This article cites its sources but does not provide page references. ... Acute stress reaction is a psychological condition arising in response to a terrifying event. ... Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a term for certain severe psychological consequences of exposure to, or confrontation with, stressful events that the person experiences as highly traumatic. ... In psychology, adjustment disorder refers to a psychological disturbance that develops in response to a stressor. ... // Definition Conversion Disorder is a DSM-IV diagnosis which describes neurological symptoms such as weakness, sensory disturbance and attacks that look like epilepsy but which can not be attributed to a known neurological disease. ... Ganser syndrome is a psychiatric disorder characterised by approximate answers to questions. ... Somatization disorder (or Briquets disorder) is a type of mental illness in which a patient manifests a psychiatric condition as a physical complaint. ... Neurasthenia was a term first coined by George Miller Beard in 1869 to describe a condition with symptoms of fatigue, anxiety and pessimism. ... For the symphonic black metal band, see Anorexia Nervosa (band) For other uses, see Anorexia Anorexia nervosa is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes an eating disorder characterized by low body weight and body image distortion with an obsessive fear of gaining weight. ... Bulimia nervosa, commonly known as bulimia, is an eating disorder. ... Dyssomnias are a broad classification of sleeping disorder that make it difficult to get to sleep, or to stay sleeping. ... This article is about the sleeping disorder. ... Hypersomnia, also known as excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), is excessive amount of sleepiness. ... A parasomnia is any sleep disorder such as sleepwalking, sleepeating, sleep sex, teeth grinding, night terrors, rhythmic movement disorder, REM behaviour disorder, restless leg syndrome, and somniloquy (or sleep talking), characterized by partial arousals during sleep or during transitions between wakefulness and sleep. ... For other uses, see Night Terror. ... The current usage of the term nightmare refers to a dream which causes the sleeper a strong unpleasant emotional response. ... It has been suggested that Sexual function be merged into this article or section. ... Erectile dysfunction (ED) or impotence is a sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Vaginismus is a condition which affects a womans ability to engage in any form of vaginal penetration, including sexual penetration, insertion of tampons, and the penetration involved in gynecological examinations. ... Dyspareunia is painful sexual intercourse, due to medical or psychological causes. ... Satyriasis redirects here. ... Postpartum depression (also postnatal depression) is a form of clinical depression which can affect women, and less frequently men, after childbirth. ... Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Characterological disorder is a class of mental illness characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of thought and action. ... Passive-aggressive behavior refers to passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to following authoritative instructions in interpersonal or occupational situations. ... Kleptomania (Greek: ÎºÎ»ÎÏ€Ï„ÎµÎ¹Î½, kleptein, to steal, Î¼Î±Î½Î¯Î±, mania) is an inability or great difficulty in resisting impulses of stealing. ... Trichotillomania (TTM), or trich as it is commonly known, is an impulse control disorder characterized by the repeated urge to pull out scalp hair, eyelashes, facial hair, nose hair, pubic hair, eyebrows or other body hair. ... â€œVoyeurâ€ redirects here. ... A factitious disorder or FD is a mental disorder where the ill individuals symptoms are either self-induced or falsified by the patient. ... This article is about the self-inflicted factitious disorder. ... Mental retardation is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (milestones) during childhood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. ... Developmental disorders are disorders that occur at some stage in a childs development, often retarding the development. ... Specific developmental disorders categorizes specific learning disabilities and developmental disorders affecting coordination. ... Speech disorders or speech impediments, as they are also called, are a type of communication disorders where normal speech is disrupted. ... Expressive language disorder (DSM 315. ... Look up aphasia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Expressive aphasia, known as Brocas aphasia in clinical neuropsychology and agrammatic aphasia in cognitive neuropsychology, is an aphasia caused by damage to Brocas area in the brain. ... Receptive aphasia, also known as Wernickes aphasia, Fluent aphasia or sensory aphasia in clinical neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychology, is a type of aphasia often (but not always) caused by neurological damage to Wernickes area in the brain. ... Landau-Kleffner syndrome (LKS), also called progressive epileptic aphasia, is a rare, childhood neurological syndrome characterized by the sudden or gradual development of aphasia (the inability to understand or express language) and an abnormal electroencephalogram (EEG). ... For the programming language, see Lisp (programming language). ... This article is about developmental dyslexia. ... Dysgraphia (or agraphia) is a deficiency in the ability to write, regardless of the ability to read, not due to intellectual impairment. ... Gerstmann syndrome is a neurological disorder. ... Developmental Dyspraxia is one or all of a heterogeneous range of psychological development disorders affecting the initiation, organization and performance of action[1]. It entails the partial loss of the ability to coordinate and perform certain purposeful movements and gestures in the absence of motor or sensory impairments. ... The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), as opposed to specific developmental disorders (SDD), refers to a group of disorders characterized by delays in the development of multiple basic functions including socialization and communication. ... Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before a child is three years old. ... A woman with Retts Syndrome Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is classified as a pervasive developmental disorder by the DSM-IV. Many [1] argue that this is a mis-classification just as it would be to include such disorders as fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, or Down... Asperger syndrome (also referred to as Aspergers syndrome, Aspergers disorder, Aspergers, or AS) is one of five neurobiological pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), and is characterized by deficiencies in social and communication skills, normal to above normal intelligence,[1] and standard language development. ... Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) previously known as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the worlds population. ... In psychiatry, conduct disorder is a pattern of repetitive behavior where the rights of others or the social norms are violated. ... Oppositional defiant disorder is a controversial psychiatric category listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders where it is described as an ongoing pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behavior toward authority figures that goes beyond the bounds of normal childhood behavior. ... Separation anxiety disorder (or simply separation anxiety) is a psychological condition in which an individual has excessive anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (like a mother). ... Selective mutism is a social anxiety disorder in which a person who is normally capable of speech is unable to speak in given situations. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Attachment disorder. ... A tic is a repeated, impulsive action, almost reflexive in nature, which the actor feels powerless to control or avoid. ... â€œTouretteâ€ redirects here. ... Speech disorders or speech impediments, as they are also called, are a type of communication disorders where normal speech is disrupted. ... Cluttering (also called tachyphemia) is a communicative disorder characterized by speech that is difficult for listeners to understand due to rapid speaking rate, erratic rhythm, poor syntax or grammar, and words or groups of words unrelated to the sentence. ...

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