Drug addiction, or substance dependence is the compulsive use of drugs, to the point where the user has no effective choice but to continue use. This phenomenon has occurred to some degree throughout recorded history (see "opium"), though modern agricultural practices, improvements in access to drugs, and advancements in biochemistry have exacerbated the problem significantly in the 20th century with the introduction of purified forms of active biological agents, and with the synthesis of hitherto unknown substances, such as methamphetamine and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). While "addiction" has been replaced by "dependency" as a clinical term, the terms are used interchangeably here. Addiction is an uncontrollable compulsion to repeat a behavior regardless of its consequences. ... For other things named OCD, see OCD (disambiguation). ... A drug is any substance that can be used to modify a chemical process or processes in the body, for example to treat an illness, relieve a symptom, enhance a performance or ability, or to alter states of mind. ... History Forums - History is Happening -Discuss all historical topics, as well as current events, in an academic setting. ... Opium is a narcotic drug which is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy . ... Biochemistry is the chemistry of life. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Methamphetamine is a synthetic stimulant drug which induces a strong feeling of euphoria and is highly psychologically addictive. ... Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (4-hydroxybutanoic acid, C4H8O3) is both a drug and a naturally occurring compound found in the mammalian brain, where it might function as a neurotransmitter. ...

The addictive nature of drugs varies from substance to substance, and from individual to individual. Drugs such as codeine or alcohol, for instance, typically require many more exposures to addict their users than drugs such as heroin or cocaine. Likewise, a person who is psychologically or genetically predisposed to addiction is much more likely to become dependent. Codeine (INN) is an opioid used for its analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrhoeal properties. ... In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-khwl الكحول, or al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... Heroin or diamorphine (INN) (colloquially referred to as junk, babania, horse, golden brown, smack, black tar, H, big H, lady H, dope, skag, juice, diesel, etc. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ...

It is interesting to note that psychologists do not classify hallucinogens like LSD and psilocybin as addictive drugs. Experts on addiction say that the use of LSD and psilocybin causes neither psychological nor physical dependency. There is anecdotal evidence which emerges of psychological addiction to recreational psychedelics such as MDMA (Ecstasy) and Ketamine. D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, commonly called acid, LSD, or LSD-25, is a powerful semisynthetic psychedelic drug. ... Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family. ...

Drug addiction has two components: physical dependency, and psychological dependency. Physical dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the body has become accustomed to its effects. The person must then continue to use the drug in order to feel normal, or its absence will trigger the symptoms of withdrawal. Psychological dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the mind has become emotionally reliant of its effects, either to elicit pleasure or relieve pain, and does not feel capable of functioning without it. Its absence produces intense cravings, which are often brought on or magnified by stress. A dependent person may have either aspects of dependency, but often has both. Antonym of psychical. ... Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul and logos = word) is the study of mind, thought, and behaviour. ... When an addictive behavior is stopped or an addictive substance is withdrawn from use, withdrawal symptoms almost always follow. ... Stress has different meanings in different fields: Stress (physics); see also tensile stress, shear stress and pressure. ...

The basis for addiction

Scientists have long accepted that there is a biological basis for drug addiction, though the exact mechanisms responsible are only now being identified. It is believed that addictive substances create dependence in the user by changing the brain's reward functions, located in the mesolimbic dopamine system—the part of the brain that reinforces certain behaviors such as eating, sexual intercourse, exercise, and social interaction. Addictive substances, through various means and to different degrees, cause the synapses of this system to flood with excessive amounts of dopamine, creating a brief rush of euphoria more commonly called a "high". Main article: Life There are many universal units and common processes that are fundamental to the known forms of life. ... The mesolimbic pathway is one of the neural pathways in the brain which links the ventral tegmentum area in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens in the limbic system. ... Dopamine is a chemical naturally produced in the body. ... In general terms, eating is the process of consuming something edible. ... A pair of lions copulating in the Maasai Mara, Kenya. ... The word exercise can mean the following: A setting in action or practicing. ...

Although the high may last only a few minutes, it also produces more longer-lasting effects in the brain. Dopamine signals occurring normally in the reward system (traveling from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens) lead to the activation of proteins designed to calm the initial reaction and foster a continued desire to pursue the behavior responsible. Addictive substances create a greater than normal dopamine release, and the subsequent reactions of the brain are greatly exaggerated as well. The amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal cortex associate the use of the drug with intense pleasure and well-being; an association that is strengthened with each exposure, and which over time comes to dominate normal thoughts and desires. When cravings for the drug are no longer controllable, the user is considered addicted. (For a contrary view of drug addiction, see Rat Park.)' In the anatomy of animals, the brain, or encephalon, is the supervisory center of the nervous system. ... The ventral tegmentum or the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is part of the midbrain, lying close to the substantia nigra and the red nucleus. ... The nucleus accumbens is a collection of neurons in the basal forebrain region of reptiles and higher organisms which play an important role in reward, pleasure and addiction. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Location of the amygdala in the human brain Located in the brains medial temporal lobe, the almond-shaped amygdala (in Latin, corpus amygdaloideum) is believed to play a key role in the emotions. ... The location of the hippocampus in the human brain. ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brains of vertebrates. ... The outermost layer of the brain, the cortex is rich in neurons and is the site of most sophisticated neural processing (See also: cerebral cortex). ... Dr. Bruce Alexander Rat Park was a 200 square foot (19 m²) housing colony built for a group of white Wister laboratory rats in 1981 by American psychologist Dr. ...

The chemicals responsible

The CREB protein, a transcription factor activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) immediately after a high, triggers genes that produce proteins such as dynorphin, which cuts off dopamine release and temporarily inhibits the reward circuit. In chronic drug users, a sustained activation of CREB leaves the user feeling depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for an additional "fix". It also leads to a short term tolerance of the substance, necessitating that a greater amount be taken in order to reach the same high. CREB (top) is a transcription factor capable of binding DNA (bottom) and regulating gene expression. ... In molecular biology, a transcription factor is a protein that binds DNA at a specific promoter or enhancer region or site, where it regulates transcription. ... Structure of cAMP Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP or 3-5-cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a molecule that is important in many biological processes; it is derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Dynorphin (Dyn) is a popular and powerful opioid ligand. ...

Another transcription factor, known as delta FosB, is thought to activate genes that, counter to the effects of CREB, actually increase the user's sensitivity to the effects of the substance. Delta FosB slowly builds up with each exposure to the drug and remains activated for weeks after the last exposure—long after the effects of CREB have faded. The hypersensitivity that it causes is thought to be responsible for the intense cravings associated with drug addiction, and is often extended to even the peripheral cues of drug use, such as related behaviors or the sight of drug paraphernalia. There is some evidence that delta FosB even causes structural changes within the nuclear accumbens, which presumably helps to perpetuate the cravings, and may be responsible for the high incidence of relapse that occur in treated drug addicts.

Mechanisms of effect

The mechanisms by which different substances activate the reward system vary among drug classes.

• Depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines, and narcotics such as morphine and methadone, work by mimicking endorphins—chemicals produced naturally by the body which have effects similar to dopamine—or by disabling the neurons that normally inhibit the release of dopamine. These substances (sometimes called "downers") typically facilitate relaxation and pain-relief.

• Stimulants such as amphetamines and nicotine increase dopamine signaling, either by directly stimulating its release, or by blocking its absorption (see "reuptake"). These substances (sometimes called "uppers") typically cause heightened alertness and energy.

The most common drug addictions are to legal substances such as: See also sedative. ... In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-khwl الكحول, or al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... Benzodiazepine tablets The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. ... The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word for stupor, originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). ... Morphine (INN), the principal active agent in opium, is a powerful opioid analgesic drug. ... Methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic synthesized in 1937 by German scientists Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart at IG Farben (Hoechst-Am-Main) who were searching for an analgesic that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential. ... Endorphins are endogenous opioid biochemical compounds. ... Neurons (also spelled neurones or called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ... A stimulant is a drug which increases the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and produces a sense of euphoria or awakeness. ... Amphetamine, also known as speed, is a synthetic drug originally studied (and still used) as an appetite suppressant. ... Nicotine is an organic compound, an alkaloid found naturally throughout the tobacco plant, with a high concentration in the leaves. ... Reuptake is the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the molecular transporter of a pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. ...

• Alcohol
• Nicotine in the form of tobacco, particularly cigarettes
• Caffeine in the form of tea, coffee, and caffeinated sodas

Many prescription or over the counter drugs can become addictive if abused. Steroidal medications, for example, are extremely addictive. In addition, a large number of other substances are currently considered to have no medical value and are not available over the counter or by prescription. Depending on the jurisdiction, these drugs may be legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess. In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-khwl الكحول, or al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... Nicotine is an organic compound, an alkaloid found naturally throughout the tobacco plant, with a high concentration in the leaves. ... Species N. glauca N. longiflora N. rustica N. sylvestris N. tabacum Ref: ITIS 30562 as of 2002-08-28 Tobacco () is a broad-leafed plant of the nightshade family, indigenous to North and South America, whose dried and cured leaves are often smoked (see tobacco smoking) in the form of... A cigarette will burn to ash on one end. ... Caffeine molecular structure Caffeine, also known as trimethylxanthine, coffeine, theine, mateine, guaranine, and methyltheobromine, is an alkaloid found naturally in such foods as coffee beans, tea, kola nuts, Yerba mate, guarana, and (in small amounts) cacao beans. ... A cup of tea A tea bush. ... Coffee beans and a cup of coffee Coffee as a drink, usually served hot, is prepared from the roasted seeds (beans) of the coffee plant. ... Prescription has various meanings. ... See separate articles for over-the-counter trading and the medical condition Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency. ... Seven-time Mr. ...

In 1972, United States President Richard Nixon declared a war on illegal drugs in an attempt to control the growing problem of drug addiction and drug-related crime. It is unclear, though, whether laws against drugs do anything to stem usage and dependency. In jurisdictions where addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by drug dealers, who are often involved with organized crime. Even though the cost of producing most illegal addictive substances is very low, their illegality combined with the addict's need permits the seller to command a premium price, often hundreds of times the production cost. As a result, the addict must often turn to crime to support his habit. 1972 was a leap year that started on a Saturday. ... Order: 37th President Vice President: Spiro Agnew (1969–1973), Gerald R. Ford (1973–1974) Term of office: January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974 Preceded by: Lyndon B. Johnson Succeeded by: Gerald R. Ford Date of birth: January 9, 1913 Place of birth: Yorba Linda, California Date of death: April 22... The prohibition of drugs through legislation or religious law is a common means of controlling the perceived negative consequences of recreational drug use at a society- or world-wide level. ... These lollipops, above, were found to contain heroin when inspected by the US Drug Enforcement Administration In jurisdictions where legislation restricts or prohibits the sale of certain popular drugs, it is common for an illegal drugs trade to develop. ... Organized crime is crime carried out systematically by formal criminal organizations. ...

Recovery from drug addiction

Methods of recovery from addiction to drugs vary according to the drugs involved and the needs of the individual. The 12 Step recovery programs are commonly known and used for a variety of addictions. Substance-abuse rehabilitation (or "rehab") centers usually offer a residential treatment program for the seriously addicted in order to isolate the patient from drugs and interactions with other users and dealers. Outpatient clinics usually offer a combination of individual counseling, group counseling, and prescriptions to drugs such as methadone. Although methadone is itself addictive, opium dependency is often so strong that the gradual tapering of a less-addictive substance is the only way to reliably treat the user. Other treatments, such as acupuncture, may be used to help alleviate symptoms as well. A twelve-step program is a fellowship which aims at the recovery of its members from the consequences of an addiction, a compulsion, or another harmful influence on their lives, with the help of the Twelve Steps. ... Substance-abuse rehabilitation is a process of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances. ... Psychotherapy is a set of techniques believed to cure or to help solve behavioral and other psychological problems in humans. ... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmacon (φάρμακον) is drug, and logos (λόγος) is science) is the study of how chemical substances interact with living systems. ... Methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic synthesized in 1937 by German scientists Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart at IG Farben (Hoechst-Am-Main) who were searching for an analgesic that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential. ... Acupuncture chart from the Ming dynasty. ...

Drugs considered to be addictive (Some may be debatable)

• Alcohol
• Anabolic steroids
• Barbiturates
• Buprenorphine
• Butorphanol
• Chloral hydrate, trichloroethanol and derivatives
• Cocaine
• Codeine
• Dextroproxyphene
• Dextromethorphan
• Ethchlorvynol
• Fentanyl and its analogs
• Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)
• Glutethimide
• Heroin (Diacetylmorphine)
• Hydrocodone
• Hydromorphone (Dilaudid®)
• Ketamine
• Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM)
• Marijuana (THC)
• Meperidine
• Meprobamate
• Methamphetamine and other Amphetamines
• Methaqualone and related sedative-hypnotics
• Methadone
• Methcathinone
• Morphine
• Nicotine
• Oxycodone
• Opium
• Synthetic opioid agonists and partial agonists not considered here
• Semi-synthetic opiates not considered here
• Xanax
• Paraldehyde (Paral®)
• Phencyclidine (PCP)
• Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol®)

In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-khwl الكحول, or al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ... Seven-time Mr. ... Barbiturates are drugs that acts as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. ... Buprenorphine is a partial opioid agonist and also an opioid antagonist. ... Chloral hydrate is a sedative and hypnotic drug, also known as trichloroacetaldehyde monohydrate, 2,2,2-trichloro-1,1-ethanediol, and the tradenames Aquachloral, Novo-Chlorhydrate, Somnos, and Noctec. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Codeine (INN) is an opioid used for its analgesic, antitussive and antidiarrhoeal properties. ... Dextromethorphan hydrobromide (DXM for short) is an antitussive drug that is found in many over-the-counter cold remedies and cough syrups. ... Ethchlorvynol is a sedative and hypnotic drug. ... Fentanyl is an opioid analgesic, first synthesized in Belgium in the late 1950s, with an analgesic potency of about 80 times that of morphine. ... Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (4-hydroxybutanoic acid, C4H8O3) is both a drug and a naturally occurring compound found in the mammalian brain, where it might function as a neurotransmitter. ... Glutethimide is a hypnotic sedative that was introduced in 1954 as a safe alternative to barbiturates to treat insomnia. ... Heroin or diamorphine (INN) (colloquially referred to as junk, babania, horse, golden brown, smack, black tar, H, big H, lady H, dope, skag, juice, diesel, etc. ... Hydrocodone (chemical synonym: dihydrocodeinone; trade names: Vicodin, Anexsia, Dicodid, Hycodan, Hycomine, Lorcet, Lortab, Norco, Tussionex) is an opioid derived from either of the naturally occurring opiates -- codeine or thebaine. ... Hydromorphone is a drug used to relieve moderate to severe pain. ... Ketamine is a general dissociative anesthetic for human and veterinary use. ... Cannabis is a plant also known as Cannabis sativa, hemp, or marijuana. ... Pethidine (INN) or meperidine (USAN) (also referred to as: isonipecaine; lidol; operidine; pethanol; piridosal; Algil®; Alodan®; Centralgin®; Demerol®; Dispadol®; Dolantin®; Dolestine®; Dolosal®; Dolsin®; Mefedina®) is a fast-acting opioid analgesic drug. ... Meprobamate is a tranquilizing drug that acts as a depressant of the central nervous system and is commonly used in the treatment of anxiety and sometimes schizophrenia. ... Methamphetamine is a synthetic stimulant drug which induces a strong feeling of euphoria and is highly psychologically addictive. ... Amphetamine, also known as speed, is a synthetic drug originally studied (and still used) as an appetite suppressant. ... Methaqualone1 is an addictive, sedative drug. ... Methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic synthesized in 1937 by German scientists Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart at IG Farben (Hoechst-Am-Main) who were searching for an analgesic that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential. ... Methcathinone is an addictive recreational drug that is cheap and simple to synthesize. ... Morphine (INN), the principal active agent in opium, is a powerful opioid analgesic drug. ... Nicotine is an organic compound, an alkaloid found naturally throughout the tobacco plant, with a high concentration in the leaves. ... Oxycodone is a very powerful and potentially addictive opioid analgesic medication synthesized from thebaine. ... Opium is a narcotic drug which is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy . ... An opioid is any agent that binds to opioid receptors found principally in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. ... An opioid is any agent that binds to opioid receptors found principally in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. ... Alprazolam, is an anxiolytic benzodiazepine used to treat anxiety disorders. ... Paraldehyde is the cyclic form of three acetaldehyde molecules (a trimer). ... Phencyclidine (also called PCP, Angel dust, or Ashy Larry) is a dissociative psychedelic drug. ... Rohypnol (the trade name of flunitrazepam) is a sedative that was made in the early 1970s by Roche and was used in hospitals only for deep sedation. ...

Related articles

• List of celebrities who've suffered drug addiction
• List of heroin addicts
• Drug Mix
• Alcoholism
• Cocaine Addiction
• UK drug culture
• Rat Park
• Robinson v. California (1964), decision by the U.S. Supreme Court that states cannot criminalize narcotics addiction itself

The following is a list of notable personalities who have been or are believed to have been addicted to heroin (or other opiates) at some point during their lives. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Polish propaganda poster saying: Stop drinking! Come with us build happy tomorrows. ... Dr. Bruce Alexander Rat Park was a 200 square foot (19 m²) housing colony built for a group of white Wister laboratory rats in 1981 by American psychologist Dr. ... Robinson v. ... 1964 was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States...

External links

• DEA list of drugs and drug types
• www.streetdrugs.org - a reference for what's out there now
• Substance Abuse Prevention and Intervention for Students with Disabilities
• Fighting Alcohol and Substance Abuse among American Indian and Alaskan Native Youth
• Adolescent Substance Abuse: Counseling Issues
• Substance Abuse and Counseling
• Substance Abuse Policy
• Stopping Drug Abuse
• Change Companies Substance Abuse Treatment Programs (commercial)
• New Freedom Programs Substance Abuse and Behavioral Health Treatment (commercial)

References

• Nestler, Eric and Malenka, Robert (Mar. 2004). "The Addicted Brain". Scientific American, pg. 78-83.
• Leavitt, Fred (2003) The REAL Drug Abusers. Rowman & Littlefield.