Coal strip mine in Wyoming

Surface mining is a type of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. It is the opposite of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is left in place, and the mineral removed through shafts or tunnels. coal mine this image is from: http://www. ... coal mine this image is from: http://www. ... Official language(s) English Capital Cheyenne Largest city Cheyenne Area  Ranked 10th  - Total 97,818 sq mi (253,348 km²)  - Width 280 miles (450 km)  - Length 360 miles (580 km)  - % water 0. ... Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ... Sub-surface mining or underground mining refers to a group of techniques used for the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. ...

Surface mining is used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rock are found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). Where minerals occur deep below the surface—where the overburden is thick or the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock— underground mining methods are used to extract the valued material. Surface mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral deposit is exhausted, or the cost of removing larger volumes of overburden makes further mining uneconomic. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure and specific physical properties. ... This balancing rock, Steamboat Rock stands in Garden of the Gods park in Colorado Springs, CO The rocky side of a mountain creek near Orosí, Costa Rica. ... Patterns in the sand Sand is a granular material made up of fine rock particles. ... Cinders are nut-sized pieces of red or black rock fragments resulting from the ejection of liquid lava that are uncemented vitric, vesicular, pyroclastic material, more than 2. ... Gravel (largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm) Gravel is rock that is of a certain particle size range. ...

In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden - the soil and rock above the deposit. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral. An excavator. ... Overburden is the term used in mining to describe material that lies above the area of economic interest. ... Dragline excavation systems are heavy equipment used in civil engineering and surface mining. ...

Types of surface mining

There are four main forms of surface mining, detailed below.

Strip mining

Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral by first removing a long strip of overlying soil and rock (the overburden). It is most commonly used to mine coal (especially lignite^{[citation needed]} coal) or tar sand. Strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, including bucket-wheel excavators which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters of earth per hour. Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ... Overburden is the term used in mining to describe material that lies above the area of economic interest. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Coal Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by mining. ... Open pit mining Tar sands, also referred to as oil sand or bituminous sand, is a combination of clay, sand, water, and bitumen. ... Bucket wheel excavator in Ferropolis, Germany Bucket-wheel excavators are heavy equipment used in surface mining and civil engineering. ...

There are two forms of strip mining. The first, and more common one is area stripping, which is used on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the previous strip.

Contour stripping involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near the outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the contour of the land. Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside, to remove more of the mineral. This method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides. Outcrop is a geological term referring to the appearance of bedrock exposed at the surface of the Earth. ... Outcrop is a geological term referring to the appearance of bedrock exposed at the surface of the Earth. ... Study of a man using an auger, for The Seven Sorrows of the Virgin, Albrecht Dürer, ca 1496 An auger is a device for moving material or liquid by means of a rotating helical flighting. ...

Among others, strip mining is used to extract the oil-impregnated sand in the Athabasca Tar Sands in Alberta. It is also common in coal mining. Bucket excavators are widely used for this purpose, however, they are prone to damages and require many millions of dollars to repair. The Athabasca Oil Sands in Alberta, Canada. ... Motto: Fortis et liber(Latin) Strong and free Capital Edmonton Largest city Calgary Official languages English (see below) Government - Lieutenant-Governor Norman Kwong - Premier Ed Stelmach (PC) Federal representation in Canadian Parliament - House seats 28 - Senate seats 6 Confederation September 1, 1905 (split from Northwest Territories) (8th [Province]) Area Ranked... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...

Open-pit mining

Main article: Open-pit mining

The El Chino mine located near Silver City, New Mexico is an open-pit copper mine

Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. Although open-pit mining is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "strip mining", the two methods are different (see above). El Chino, located near Silver City, New Mexico, is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining, or opencast mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... The Chino open-pit copper mine located just out of Silver City, New Mexico. ... The Chino open-pit copper mine located just out of Silver City, New Mexico. ... Location in the State of New Mexico Coordinates: Country United States State New Mexico County Grant Founded 1878 Government  - Mayor James R. Marshall Area  - City  10. ... El Chino, located near Silver City, New Mexico, is an open-pit copper mine Open-pit mining, or opencast mining, refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. ... This balancing rock, Steamboat Rock stands in Garden of the Gods park in Colorado Springs, CO The rocky side of a mountain creek near Orosí, Costa Rica. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... A borrow pit is a term used in construction and civil engineering. ...

Mountaintop removal

Main article: Mountaintop removal mining

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) is a relatively new form of coal mining that involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach the coal seam as deep as 1,000 feet below the surface. It is used where a coal seam outcrops all the way around a mountain top. All the rock and soil above the coal seam are removed and the spoil placed in adjacent lows such as hollows or ravines. Mountaintop removal replaces previously steep topography with a relatively level surface. Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) is a relatively new form of coal mining which takes the mountain off the coal. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... Outcrop is a geological term referring to the appearance of bedrock exposed at the surface of the Earth. ...

The technique has been used increasingly in recent years in the Appalachian coal fields of West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee in the United States. The profound changes in topography and disturbance of pre-existing ecosystems have made mountaintop removal highly controversial. Official language(s) English Capital Charleston Largest city Charleston Area  Ranked 41st  - Total 24,244 sq mi (62,809 km²)  - Width 130 miles (210 km)  - Length 240 miles (385 km)  - % water 0. ... Official language(s) English[1] Capital Frankfort Largest city Louisville Area  Ranked 37th  - Total 40,444 sq mi (104,749 km²)  - Width 140 miles (225 km)  - Length 379 miles (610 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Largest metro area Nashville Area  Ranked 36th  - Total 42,169 sq mi (109,247 km²)  - Width 120 miles (195 km)  - Length 440 miles (710 km)  - % water 2. ...

Advocates of mountaintop removal point out that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the technique provides premium flat land suitable for many uses in a region where flat land is at a premium. They also maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better able to support populations of game animals.^[1]

Critics contend that mountaintop removal is a disastrous practice that benefits a small number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. The documentary "Toxic West Virginia" ^[2] by New York based VBS TV highlights the impact on the community as well as the biodiversity impacts created by this form of mining. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency environmental impact statement finds that streams near valley fills from mountaintop removal contain high levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.^[3] The statement also estimates that 724 miles of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills from 1985 to 2001.^[3] Local community is a geographically defined community, a group of people living close to each other. ... EPA redirects here. ... According to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) whenever the U.S. Federal Government takes a major Federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment it must first consider the environmental impact in a document called an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). ... Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. ...

In common with other methods of coal mining, processing the coal mined by mountaintop removal generates waste slurry (also called coal sludge), which is usually stored behind a dam on-site. Many coal slurry impoundments in West Virginia exceed 500 million gallons in volume, and some, including the Brushy Fork impoundment in Raleigh County, exceed 7 billion gallons.^[4] Such impoundments can be hundreds of feet high and have close proximity to schools or private residences.^[5] The most controversial sludge dam at present sits 400 yards above Marsh Fork Elementary School. The sludge pond is permitted to hold 2.8 billion gallons of toxic sludge, and is 21 times larger than the pond which killed 125 people in the Buffalo Creek Flood. ^[6] A slurry is in general a thick suspension of solids in a liquid and may be: Look up slurry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A coal slurry impoundment consists of solid and liquid waste and is a by-product of the coal mining and preparation processes. ... Raleigh County is a county located in the state of West Virginia. ... Aerial View of Buffalo Creek area taken the day after impoundment dam #3 failed. ...

Kentucky's Martin County Sludge Spill occurred after midnight on October 11, 2000 when a coal sludge impoundment broke through into an underground mine below, propelling 306 million gallons of sludge down two tributaries of the Tug Fork River. The spill polluted hundreds of miles of waterways, contaminated the water supply for over 27,000 residents, and killed all aquatic life in Coldwater Fork and Wolf Creek. The Martin County Sludge Spill was an accident that occurred after midnight on October 11, 2000 when a coal sludge impoundment in Martin County, Kentucky, broke through an underground mine below, propelling 306 million gallons of sludge down two tributaries of the Tug Fork River. ... is the 284th day of the year (285th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2000 (MM) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Tug Fork at Williamson, West Virginia in 1996. ...

Blasting at a mountaintop removal mine expels coal dust and fly-rock into the air, which can then disturb or settle onto private property nearby. This dust contains sulfur compounds, which corrodes structures and tombstones and is a health hazard. ^[7]

Although MTR sites are usually reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock and controlling erosion, but not reforesting the area with trees.^[8] Quick-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.^[3] Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerous endemic species.^[9] Erosion also increases, which can intensify flooding. In the Eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation.^[10] The forest in Stanley Park, Vancouver, Canada is generally considered to have second and third growth characteristics. ... Sweet clover (), introduced and naturalized to the U.S. from Eurasia as a forage and cover crop. ... Cut grass growing on in the Hudson River Park Tall grass growing wild at Lyme Park Grass covered house in Iceland. ... Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. ... This article is about the ecological meaning of endemic. See also endemic (epidemiology). ... Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA. For erosion as an operation of Mathematical morphology, see Erosion (morphology) Erosion is displacement of solids (soil, mud, rock and other particles) by the agents of ocean currents, wind, water, or ice by downward or down-slope movement... A flood (in Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages; compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float) is an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a deluge. ...

Dredging

Dredging is a method often used to bring up underwater mineral deposits. Although dredging is usually employed to clear or enlarge waterways for boats, it can also recover significant amounts of underwater minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply. This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Environmental issues

The large impact of surface mining on the topography, vegetation, and water resources has made it highly controversial. Surface mining is subject to state and federal reclamation requirements, but adequacy of the requirements is a constant source of contention. Unless reclaimed, surface mining can leave behind large areas of infertile waste rock. Land reclamation is either of two distinct practices. ...

In the United States, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 mandates reclamation of coal surface mines. Reclamation for hard rock mines, however, is not mandated by any federal law, and regulations vary from state to state. Sign at Indian Head Mine, near Beulah, ND. Photo: Chuck Meyers, OSM. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) is the primary federal law that regulates the environmental effects of coal mining in the United States. ...

References

1. ^ J.S. Gardner and P Sainato, Mountaintop mining and sustainable development in Appalachia, Mining Engineering, March 2007, p.48-55.
2. ^ "Toxic West Virginia", VBS TV, 2007-06-18. 
3. ^ ^{a b c} U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25). Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved on August 20, 2006.
4. ^ Brian Vanneman (2004). Tearing Up Appalachia. Sierra Club. Retrieved on September 4, 2006.
5. ^ Marsh Fork Elementary, Massey Energy's Shumate Coal Sludge Impoundment and Goals Coal Prep Plant. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.
6. ^ West Virginia Division of Culture and History -- Buffalo Creek.
7. ^ Jessica Tzerman. "Blast Rites", Grist, 2006-08-03. Retrieved on September 4. 
8. ^ Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative Forest Reclamation Advisory. Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.
9. ^ Biology: Plants, Animals, & Habitats - We live in a hot spot of biodiversity. Apalachicola Region Resources on the Web. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
10. ^ Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. Retrieved on September 5, 2006.

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See also