This article is about a concept related to renewable energy, of which sustainable energy is a superset.

Sustainable energy sources are energy sources which are not expected to be depleted in a timeframe relevant to the human race, and which therefore contribute to the sustainability of all species. This concept is termed sustainability. An additional criterion for strict sustainability, useful for short- and medium-term decisions is social and political sustainability of an energy technology. Environmental technology or green technology is the application of the environmental sciences to conserve the natural environment and resources, and by curbing the negative impacts of human involvement. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Air Pollution#Control devices. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... An active compost heap, steaming on a cold winter morning. ... Conservation biology, or conservation ecology, is the science of analyzing and protecting Earths biological diversity. ... The conservation ethic is an ethic of resource use, allocation, exploitation, and protection. ... Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems1 instead of traditional forestry that maximizes economic productivity. ... For the physical concepts, see conservation of energy and energy efficiency. ... It has been suggested that future energy development be merged into this article or section. ... Environmental design is the process of addressing environmental parameters when devising plans, programs, policies, buildings, or products. ... An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the likely human environmental health impact, risk to ecological health, and changes to natures services that a project may have. ... Envirnonmental preservation is the strict setting aside of natural resources to prevent the use or contact by humans or by human intervention. ... This article is about green building construction. ... This article or section is incomplete and may require expansion and/or cleanup. ... Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way by mans industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environment or its re-use. ... Natural building involves a range of building systems and materials that place major emphasis on sustainability. ... This article needs additional references or sources to facilitate its verification. ... Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ... // Renewable energy development covers the advancement, capacity growth, and use of renewable energy sources by humans. ... Generally, remediation means giving a remedy. ... The following page contains a list of different forms of waste treatment Anaerobic digestion ArrowBio Composting Gasification Incineration In-vessel composting Landfill Mechanical biological treatment Mechanical heat treatment Plasma Pyrolysis Recycling Sewage treatment Tunnel composting UASB Windrow composting Categories: | ... Sustainable architecture applies techniques of sustainable design to architecture. ... Sustainable development is defined as balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of the natural environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. ... The following page consist of a list of waste water treatment technologies: Activated sludge Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic lagoon Cesspit Combined sewer overflow Composting toilet Constructed wetland Imhoff tank Floculation Reed bed Septic tank Sequencing batch reactor UASB Aerobic Granular Reactor This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... Control room and schematics of the water purification plant to Bret lake. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Waste For the company, see Waste Management, Inc. ... Environmental science is the study of the interactions among the physical, chemical and biological components of the environment; with a focus on pollution and degradation of the environment related to human activities; and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability from local and global development. ... Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ... A is a subset of B, and B is a superset of A. In mathematics, especially in set theory, a set A is a subset of a set B, if A is contained inside B. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called inclusion. ... Sustainability is an attempt to provide the best outcomes for the human and natural environments both now and into the indefinite future. ...

Sustainable energy sources are most often regarded as including all renewable sources, such as solar power, wind power, wave power, geothermal power, tidal power, and others. Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power is the use of geothermal heat to generate electricity. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides, or the movement of water caused by the tidal flow. ...

Fission power and fusion power meet the definition of sustainability, but there is controversy over whether or not they should be regarded as sustainable for social and political reasons. This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... Internal view of the JET tokamak superimposed with an image of a plasma taken with a visible spectrum video camera. ... Sustainability is an attempt to provide the best outcomes for the human and natural environments both now and into the indefinite future. ...

Renewable energy technologies

Main article: Renewable energy commercialization

Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependency on fossil fuel resources, and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases.^[1] The International Energy Agency has defined three generations of renewable energy technologies, reaching back more than 100 years:^[1] Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ... For articles on specific fuels used in vehicles, see Biogas, Bioethanol, Biobutanol, Biodiesel, and Straight vegetable oil. ... See biomass (ecology) for the use of the term in ecology, where it refers to the cumulation of living matter Switchgrass, a tough plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power is the use of geothermal heat to generate electricity. ... Hydroelectricity is the worlds leading renewable energy source. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides, or the movement of water caused by the tidal flow. ... Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio as they generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependency on fossil fuel resources, and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. ... Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ... Energy security, or security of supply, is a key component of energy policy in many countries. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (fuel oil or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals[1] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earths crust over hundreds of millions of years[2]. The theory that hydrocarbons were formed from these... Greenhouse gases are gaseous components of the atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse effect. ... The International Energy Agency (IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris-based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the oil crisis. ...

• First-generation technologies emerged from the industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century and include hydropower, biomass combustion, and geothermal power and heat. Some of these technologies are still in widespread use.

• Second-generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern forms of bioenergy, and solar photovoltaics. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) investments since the 1980s. The initial investment was prompted by energy security concerns linked to the oil crises of the 1970s but the continuing appeal of these renewables is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials.

• Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, concentrating solar thermal power, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major role.^[1]

First- and second-generation technologies have entered the markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long term RD&D commitments, where the public sector has a role to play.^[1] The Industrial Revolution was a major shift of technological, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions that occurred in the late 18th century and early 19th century in some Western countries. ... Undershot water wheels on the Orontes River in Hama, Syria Saint Anthony Falls Hydropower is the capture of the energy of moving water for some useful purpose. ... See biomass (ecology) for the use of the term in ecology, where it refers to the cumulation of living matter Switchgrass, a tough plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States Rice chaff. ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power is the use of geothermal heat to generate electricity. ... Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of sunshine to heat a structure. ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Bioenergy is renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological sources. ... Photovoltaic tree in Styria, Austria The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... Energy security, or security of supply, is a key component of energy policy in many countries. ... An Energy Crisis is any great shortfall (or price rise) in the supply of energy to an economy. ... Biomass gasification, a century old technology, is viewed today as an alternative to conventional fuel. ... A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. ... The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. ... Hot-Dry-Rock (HDR) is a type of geothermal power production that utilises the very high temperatures that can be found in rocks just a few kilometres below ground. ... The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ... Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. ...

First-generation technologies

Hydroelectric dam in cross section

First-generation technologies are most competitive in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on the exploration of the available resource potential, particularly in developing countries, and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance. Among sources of renewable energy, hydroelectric plants have the advantages of being long-lived -- many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Also, hydroelectric plants are clean and have few emissions. Criticisms directed at large-scale hydroelectric plants include: dislocation of people living where the reservoirs are planned, and release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir.^[2] However, it has been found that high emissions are associated only with shallow reservoirs in warm (tropical) locales. Generally speaking, hydroelectric plants produce much lower life-cycle emissions than other types of generation. Hydroelectric power, which underwent extensive development during growth of electrification in the 19th and 20th centuries, is experiencing resurgence of development in the 21st century. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the booming economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are installing hydropower at a rapid pace. This growth is driven by much increased energy costs -- especially for imported energy -- and widespread desires for more domestically-produced, clean, renewable, and economical generation. Image File history File links Hydroelectric_dam. ... Image File history File links Hydroelectric_dam. ...

Second-generation technologies

The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5.5 million. It started feeding electricity to the national grid in November 2005.

Markets for second-generation technologies are strong and growing, mainly in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. The challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide. Strategic deployment in one country not only reduces technology costs for users there, but also for those in other countries, contributing to overall cost reductions and performance improvement.^[1] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (694x1254, 648 KB) Summary Description: CIS Tower Source: I took it Date: created 16. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (694x1254, 648 KB) Summary Description: CIS Tower Source: I took it Date: created 16. ... CIS Tower before recladding The CIS Tower is currently the tallest building in Manchester, England. ... This article is about the City of Manchester in England. ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... The National Grid is the high-voltage electric power transmission network in Great Britain, connecting power stations and major substations and ensuring that electricity generated anywhere in Great Britain can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere. ...

Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool water, or for space heating.^[3] The heat can also be used for industrial applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.^[4] In many climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of sunshine to heat a structure. ...

In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules provided Remote Area Power Supply, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing building integrated photovoltaics and power plants for grid connected applications (see Photovoltaic power stations article for details). There is currently a proposal to build a Solar power station in Victoria, Australia, which would be the world's largest PV power station, at 154 MW.^{[5] [6]} Other large photovoltaic power stations, which have been proposed or are under construction, include: the Girrasol solar power plant (62 MW),^[7] Waldpolenz Solar Park (40 MW),^[8] and the Nellis Solar Power Plant (15 MW).^[9] A Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) is a system that provides electricity in remote locations, without requiring connection to an electricity distribution system. ... The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. ... Several large photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe. ... A large new Solar power station for Victoria is planned. ... Building approval has been given for the Waldpolenz Solar Park, which will be the world’s biggest photovoltaic (PV) power system, at a former military air base to the east of Leipzig in Germany. ... The Nellis Solar Power Plant will be the largest solar photovoltaic system ever to be built in North America and is located at Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County, Nevada, on the northeast side of Las Vegas. ...

Worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA

Information on pump, California.

Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs. At the end of 2006, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 74,223 megawatts, and although it currently produces less than 1% of world-wide electricity use, it accounts for approximately 20% of electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain, and 7% in Germany.^[10][11] However, it may be difficult to site wind turbines in some areas for aesthetic or environmental reasons, and it may be difficult to integrate wind power into electricity grids in some cases.^[1] Image File history File links Wind_2006andprediction_en. ... Image File history File links Wind_2006andprediction_en. ... Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... The megawatt (symbol: MW) is a unit for measuring power corresponding to one million (106) watts. ...

Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result of this, together with the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in oil.^[12][13][14] For other forms of alternative energy, see energy development. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, drinking alcohol or grain alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, slightly toxic chemical compound, and is best known as the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. ...

Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.^[15] “Ford” redirects here. ... DaimlerChrysler AG (ISIN: DE0007100000) is a German car corporation and the worlds eighth largest car manufacturer. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ...

Third-generation technologies

Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, solar thermal power stations, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.^[1] Third-generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and RD&D funding.^[1] Biomass gasification, a century old technology, is viewed today as an alternative to conventional fuel. ... A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. ... The major applications of solar thermal energy at present are heating swimming pools, heating water for domestic use, and space heating of buildings. ... Hot-Dry-Rock (HDR) is a type of geothermal power production that utilises the very high temperatures that can be found in rocks just a few kilometres below ground. ... The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ...

According to the International Energy Agency, new bioenergy (biofuel) technologies being developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol biorefineries, could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.^[16] Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions of the United States.^[17]

Sketch of a Parabolic Trough Collector

Solar thermal power stations have been successfully operating in California commercially since the late 1980s, including the largest solar power plant of any kind, the 350 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems. Nevada Solar One is another 64MW plant which has recently opened.^[18] Other parabolic trough power plants being proposed are two 50MW plants in Spain, and a 100MW plant in Israel.^[19] Image File history File links Smallsketch. ... Image File history File links Smallsketch. ... Official language(s) English Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Largest metro area Greater Los Angeles Area  Ranked 3rd  - Total 158,302 sq mi (410,000 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 770 miles (1,240 km)  - % water 4. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Nevada Solar One is the third largest solar power plant in the world, generating 64MW, as of June 2007. ...

In terms of Ocean energy, another third-generation technology, Portugal has the world's first commercial wave farm, the Aguçadora Wave Park, under construction in 2007. The farm will initially use three Pelmis P-750 machines generating 2.25 MW.^{[20] [21]} and costs are put at 8.5 million euro. Subject to successful operation, a further 70 million euro is likely to be invested before 2009 on a further 28 machines to generate 525 MW.^[22] Funding for a wave farm in Scotland was announced in February, 2007 by the Scottish Executive, at a cost of over 4 million pounds, as part of a £13 million funding packages for ocean power in Scotland. The farm will be the world's largest with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines.^[23] (see also Wave farm). The oceans have a tremendous amount of power and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. ... Pelamis machine pointing into the waves: it attenuates the waves, gathering more energy than its narrow profile suggests. ... The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter is an emerging technology that will use the motion of ocean waves to create electricity. ... For other uses, see Euro (disambiguation). ... 2009 (MMIX) will be a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the country. ... The Executives logo, shown with English and Scottish Gaelic caption The term Scottish Executive is used in two different, but closely-related senses: to denote the executive arm of Scotlands national legislature (i. ... “GBP” redirects here. ... Wind, wave and tide make up more than 80% of Scotlands renewable energy potential. ... Pelamis machine pointing into the waves: it attenuates the waves, gathering more energy than its narrow profile suggests. ...

In 2007, the world's first commercial tidal power station is to be installed in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. The 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal electricity generator, part of Northern Ireland's Environment & Renewable Energy Fund scheme, will take advantage of the fast tidal flow (up to 4 metres per second) in the lough. Although the generator is expected to be powerful enough to power a thousand homes, the turbine will have minimal environmental impact, as it will be almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn quite slowly.^[24] Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides, or the movement of water caused by the tidal flow. ... View of Portaferry from the Strangford side of the lough Strangford Lough (Loch Cuan in Irish) is a lough in County Down, Northern Ireland, separated from the Irish Sea by the Ards peninsula. ... The SeaGen rotor in Harland and Wolff, Belfast before installation in Strangford Narrows Marine Current Turbines Ltd. ...

Solar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products. Nanosolar has secured more than $100 million from investors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin-film solar panels. The company expects the factory to open in 2010 and produce enough solar cells each year to generate 430 megawatts of power.^[25] Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. ... Nanosolar is a developer of solar power technology. ...

Sustainable energy

Renewable energy and energy efficiency are sometimes said to be the “twin pillars” of sustainable energy policy. Both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Efficiency slows down energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed. Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy thus requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency.^[26] Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is using less energy to provide the same level of energy service. ...

Renewable energy (and energy efficiency) are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increased levels of investment and the fact that much of the capital is coming from more conventional financial actors suggest that sustainable energy options are now becoming mainstream.^[27]

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the sustainable energy industries, according to a trend analysis from the United Nations Environment Programme. The report says investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006. In 2007, the upward trend is continuing, with capital investments occurring in sectors and regions previously considered too risky and too illiquid to merit the attention of the institutional investment community.^[28] A recent report from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy of Zurich states that the generation and storage of renewable energy will be the fastest growing sector in energy market over the next 20 years.^[29] Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 450,000 years For current global climate change, see Global warming. ... This article or section contains speculation and may try to argue its points. ... Klaus Töpfer, former UNEP Exec. ...

Sustainable sources not considered renewable

Sustainable energy sources that aren't renewable are those whose stock is not replenished, but for which the presently available stocks are expected to last for as long as human civilization cares to use them.

These energy sources are derived from nuclear energy, as other forms of stored energy found on Earth do not have sufficient energy density to supply humanity indefinitely. Nuclear energy is energy released from the atomic nucleus. ... {{Portal|Energy}Potential energy is the energy available within a physical system due to an objects position in conjunction with a conservative force which acts upon it (such as the gravitational force or Coulomb force). ... Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume or per unit mass, depending on the context. ...

• Fission power uses the nuclear fission of heavy elements to release energy that drives a heat engine. Primary challenges with the use of fission power are the production of small quantities of highly-radioactive waste in the form of spent fuel, larger quantities of less-radioactive waste in the form of activated structural material, and (for use as a long-term power source) the need to perform intensive processing of highly-radioactive fuel bundles, both to reclaim unused fuel in spent fuel rods, and to reclaim plutonium 239 and uranium 233 that have been bred from uranium 238 and thorium 232, respectively.

• Fusion power uses the nuclear fusion of isotopes of hydrogen to release energy that drives a heat engine. Primary challenges with the use of fusion power are that the technology required to build a useful fusion power plant are still under development, and that substantial quantities of radioactive waste in the form of activated structural material is produced.

Fission power's long-term sustainability depends on the amount of uranium and thorium that is available to be mined. Estimates for fuel reserves vary widely, but if breeder reactors and fuel reprocessing are assumed, tend to be tens of thousands of years or longer (uranium is approximately as common in Earth's crust as tin or zinc (2 ppm), and thorium as common as lead (6 ppm)). This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... An induced nuclear fission event. ... A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts thermal energy to mechanical output. ... Neutron activation is the process by which neutron radiation induces radioactivity in materials. ... General Name, Symbol, Number plutonium, Pu, 94 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight (244) g·mol−1 Electron configuration [Rn] 5f6 7s2 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2 Physical properties Phase solid Density (near r. ... General Name, symbol, number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, period, block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ... General Name, Symbol, Number thorium, Th, 90 Chemical series Actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 232. ... Internal view of the JET tokamak superimposed with an image of a plasma taken with a visible spectrum video camera. ... The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that breeds fuel. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Standard atomic weight 118. ... General Name, Symbol, Number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... For Pb as an abbreviation, see PB. General Name, Symbol, Number lead, Pb, 82 Chemical series Post-transition metals or poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 6, p Appearance bluish gray Standard atomic weight 207. ...

Fusion power's long-term sustainability depends on the amount of lithium that is available to be mined (for deuterium-tritium fusion), or the amount of deuterium available in seawater (for deuterium-deuterium fusion). Lithium is a reasonably common component of Earth's crust, being about 10 times as common as thorium (65 ppm). Deuterium (a hydrogen isotope) occurs wherever hydrogen is found (principally in water), at about 150 ppm. As it can be extracted easily from seawater, economically viable reserves of deuterium are for practical purposes unlimited. General Name, Symbol, Number lithium, Li, 3 Chemical series alkali metals Group, Period, Block 1, 2, s Appearance silvery white/grey Standard atomic weight 6. ... Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). ...

Technical sustainability of nuclear power

Discussions are re-emerging on proper classification of nuclear energy under such umbrella terms as "renewable" and "sustainable" These attributes bring moral gains or eligibility for development aid under various jurisdictions.

The primary argument in favor of "renewable" status is the relatively inexhaustible supply of fuel available (uranium and thorium for fission or hydrogen for fusion). See also: Renewable energy, Nuclear power section. General Name, symbol, number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, period, block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic; corrodes to a spalling black oxide coat in air Standard atomic weight 238. ... General Name, Symbol, Number thorium, Th, 90 Chemical series Actinides Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 232. ... An induced nuclear fission event. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ... Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat. ...

Proponents, such as environmentalists James Lovelock, Patrick Moore (Greenpeace co-founder), Stewart Brand (creator of The Whole Earth Catalog), and Norris McDonald (president of the AAEA), also claim that nuclear power is at least as environmentally friendly as traditional sources of renewable energy, making it the best future solution to global warming and the world's growing need for energy. They note that nuclear power plants produce little carbon dioxide emissions and claim that the radioactive waste produced is minimal and well-contained, especially compared to fossil fuels. ^[30] James Lovelock in front of a statue of Gaia in 2000 Dr James Ephraim Lovelock, CH, CBE, FRS (born 26 July 1919) is an independent scientist, author, researcher, environmentalist, and futurologist who lives in Cornwall, in the south west of Great Britain. ... Dr. Patrick Moore, born 1947 in Winter Harbour, B.C., Canada, is a founding member of Greenpeace, although he now criticizes the organization. ... Greenpeace protest against Esso / Exxon Mobil. ... Stewart Brand speaking September 5, 2004 Stewart Brand (born December 14, 1938 in Rockford, Illinois) is an author, editor, and creator of The Whole Earth Catalog and CoEvolution Quarterly. ... The Whole Earth Catalog was a sizeable catalog published twice a year from 1968 to 1972, and occasionally thereafter, until 1998. ... Norris McDonald is an environmentalist with almost three decades of experience Image:NorrisCapitol4. ... The African American Environmentalist Association is a lobby group focusing on environmental issues. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades and the projected...

In 2001, professors Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen and Philip Smith released a study which argued that, though nuclear plants don't produce any CO₂ directly, the energy required for the rest of the nuclear fuel cycle (uranium mining, enrichment, transportation) and power plant life cycle (construction, maintenance, decommissioning) leads to significant carbon dioxide emissions, especially as usage of lower-grade uranium becomes necessary.^[31] In 2000, however, Frans H. Koch of the International Energy Agency reported that, although it is correct that the nuclear life cycle produces greenhouse gases, these emissions are actually less than the life cycle emissions of other renewables, like solar and wind, and drastically less than fossil fuels.^[32] General Name, symbol, number carbon, C, 6 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 14, 2, p Appearance black (graphite) colorless (diamond) Standard atomic weight 12. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... The International Energy Agency (IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris-based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the oil crisis. ...

Political sustainability of nuclear power

The use of nuclear power is political and controversial because of the problem of storing radioactive waste for indefinite periods, the potential for severe radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, and the possibility that its use could in some countries lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Radioactive waste are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. ... The radiation warning symbol (trefoil). ... World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ...

Serious nuclear accidents which have occurred include the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the 1979 Three Mile Island accident, the 1957 Windscale fire, and the 1957 Mayak accident. The nuclear power industry went into a period of decline for some years following the Chernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents (see Nuclear power controversy). Coordinates: 51°2322. ... For details on this station, see Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station. ... On October 10, 1957, the graphite core of a British nuclear reactor at Windscale, Cumbria, caught fire, releasing substantial amounts of radioactive contamination into the surrounding area. ... Mayak is the name of a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant between the towns of Kasli and Kyshtym (also transliterated Kishtym or Kishtim) 150 km northwest of Chelyabinsk in Russia. ... A nuclear power station. ...

Some critics of nuclear energy argue that deployment of nuclear reactors in many countries would accelerate the proliferation of nuclear weapons technology that has many links with civilian use of nuclear materials. Some nuclear reactors (especially heavy water moderated reactors) create the materials necessary for these weapons. The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 kilometers (11 mi) above the hypocenter A nuclear weapon derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions of fusion or fission. ...

The issue of fuel reprocessing and/or long-term repository of nuclear waste materials also remains contentious. Very few countries have developed waste depositories for high-level radioactive waste (see: Yucca Mountain Repository USA; Gorleben Germany; Forsmark, Sweden). Political Punk band from Victorville, Ca WWW.MYSPACE.COM/NUCLEARWASTEX ... Radioactivity may mean: Look up radioactivity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Yucca Mountain Yucca Mountain is a ridge line in Nye County, in the south-central part of the U.S. state of Nevada. ... Gorleben is a small municipality (Gemeinde) in the Gartow region of the Lüchow-Dannenberg district in the far north-east of Lower Saxony, Germany, a region also known as the Wendland. ... Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant in Sweden, and also the site of the Swedish Final repository for radioactive operational waste. ...

Due to opposition to nuclear power many countries (Austria, Italy, Sweden, Germany) have effectively banned further development of nuclear energy showing a clear lack of political sustainability under present conditions. Some other countries, such as Australia, have never built a nuclear power station.

See also

Energy Portal

• Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
• Global warming
• Kyoto Protocol
• Ashden Awards
• Energy Globe Awards

Image File history File links Portal. ... Global carbon dioxide emissions 1800–2000 Global average surface temperature 1850 to 2006 Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that redefined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration, and the 2°C (3. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans in recent decades and the projected... Kyoto Protocol Opened for signature December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan Entered into force February 16, 2005. ... The Ashden Awards for Sustainable Energy are annual awards given by a charity of the same name that is based in London. ... The International Energy Globe Awards (the World Awards for Sustainability) have been awarded annually since 1999 to recognise projects that make careful and economical use of resources and employ alternative energy sources. ...

References

External links

• Europe: No. 1 in Sustainable Energy
• Sustainable Energy Europe Campaign