T cells belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocyte types, such as B cells and NK cells by the presence of a special receptor on their cell surface that is called the T cell receptor (TCR). The abbreviation "T", in T cell, stands for thymus since it is the principal organ for their development. “White Blood Cells” redirects here. ... A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell involved in the human bodys immune system. ... Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages and NK-cells, the production of antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. ... B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response (as opposed to the cell-mediated immune response). ... Natural killer cells (NK) are a type of lymphocyte (a white blood cell) and a component of nonspecific immune defense. ... Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either cytotoxic CD8+ cells or helper CD4+ cells. ... Thymus, see Thyme. ...

T cell subsets

Molecular association of CD8+ T cells with MHC class I and CD4+ T cells with MHC class II

Several different subsets of T cells have been described, each with a distinct function. Image File history File links TCR-MHC_bindings. ... Image File history File links TCR-MHC_bindings. ...

• Helper T cells are the "middlemen" of the adaptive immune system. Once activated, they divide rapidly and secrete small proteins called cytokines that regulate or "help" the immune response. Depending on the cytokine signals received, these cells differentiate into Th1, Th2, Th17 or other subsets, which secrete different cytokines.

• Cytotoxic T cells (T_c cells) destroy virally infected cells and tumor cells, and are also implicated in transplant rejection. These cells are also known as CD8⁺ T cells, since they express the CD8 glycoprotein at their surface. Through interaction with helper T cells, these cells can be transformed into suppressor T cells which prevent autoimmune diseases such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.^[1]

• Memory T cells are a subset of antigen-specific T cells that persist long-term after an infection has resolved. They quickly expand to large numbers of effector T cells upon re-exposure to their cognate antigen, thus providing the immune system with "memory" against past infections. Memory T cells comprise two subtypes: central memory T cells (T_CM cells) and effector memory T cells (T_EM cells). Memory cells may be either CD4+ or CD8+.

• Regulatory T cells (T_reg cells), formerly known as suppressor T cells, are crucial for the maintenance of immunological tolerance. Their major role is to shut down T cell mediated immunity towards the end of an immune reaction and to suppress auto-reactive T cells that escaped the process of negative selection in the thymus. Two major classes of CD4+ regulatory T cells have been described, including the naturally occurring T_reg cells and the adaptive T_reg cells. Naturally occurring T_reg cells (also known as CD4⁺CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ T_reg cells) arise in the thymus, whereas the adaptive T_reg cells (also known as Tr1 cells or Th3 cells) may originate during a normal immune response. Naturally occurring Treg cells can be distinguished from other T cells by the presence of an intracellular molecule called FoxP3. Mutations of the FOXP3 gene can prevent regulatory T cell development, causing the fatal autoimmune disease IPEX.

• Natural Killer T cells (NKT cells) are a special kind of lymphocyte that bridges the adaptive immune system with the innate immune system. Unlike conventional T cells that recognize peptide antigen presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, NKT cells recognize glycolipid antigen presented by a molecule called CD1d. Once activated, these cells can perform functions ascribed to both T_h and T_c cells (i.e. cytokine production and release of cytolytic/cell killing molecules).

• γδ T cells represent a small subset of T cells that possess a distinct TCR on their surface. A majority of T cells have a TCR composed of two glycoprotein chains called α- and β- TCR chains. However, in γδ T cells, the TCR is made up of one γ-chain and one δ-chain. This group of T cells is much less common (5% of total T cells) than the αβ T cells, but are found at their highest abundance in the gut mucosa, within a population of lymphocytes known as intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs). The antigenic molecules that activate γδ T cells are still widely unknown. However, γδ T cells are not MHC restricted and seem to be able to recognise whole proteins rather than requiring peptides to be presented by MHC molecules on antigen presenting cells. Some recognize MHC class IB molecules though. Human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells, which constitute the major γδ T cell population in peripheral blood, are unique in that they specifically and rapidly respond to a small non-peptidic microbial metabolite, HMB-PP, an isopentenyl pyrophosphate precursor.

'Autoaggressive T cells' are a unique T cell subset that are characterized by the expression of CD40. CD40 typically is associated with antigen presenting cells, but is also expressed on a subset of T helper cells. Th40 cells are found in all individuals but occur at drastically expanded percentages in autoimmune subjects. This is true of autoimmune humans and mice. Th40 cells from type 1 diabetic subjects respond to known self-antigens, while Th40 cells from non-autoimmune subjects do not respond to those antigens. A crucial role of CD40 on T cells is to induce RAG1 and RAG2, the recombinase proteins responsible for altering the T cell receptor. The TCR is the means by which T cells are able to recognize antigens. Dogma requires that RAG1 and RAG2 only be expressed in the thymus, during T cell development. However RAGs are re-expressed in peripheral T cells and CD40 engagement on Th40 cells induces RAGs expression. Following RAG expression changes in TCR occur. This means that Th40 cells are capable of adapting throughout an individual's lifetime. This process of altering TCR expression in the periphery is called TCR revision. Revision can be responsible for expanding the T cell repertoire, but also could result in the generation of autoaggressive T cells. TCR revision is therefore another means of T cell tolerance. Alteration of autoaggressive TCR would necessarily tolerize those T cells. A helper (or TH) T cell is a T cell (a type of white blood cell) which has on its surface antigen receptors that can bind to fragments of antigens displayed by the Class II MHC molecules found on professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). ... The immune system is the collection of organs and tissues involved in the adaptive defense of a body against foreign biological material. ... Cytokines are a group of proteins and peptides that are used in organisms as signaling compounds. ... T helper cells (also known as effector T cells or Th cells) are a sub-group of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell or leukocyte) that play an important role in establishing and maximising the capabilities of the immune system. ... A T helper cell (sometimes also known as effector T cells or TH cells) are a group of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell or leukocyte) that play a cornerstone role in establishing and maximising the ability of the immune system. ... T helper 17 cells (Th17) are a subset of interleukin 17-producing T helper cells. ... Cytokines are small protein molecules that are the core of communication between immune system cells, and even between immune system cells and cells belonging to other tissue types. ... A cytotoxic T cell (also known as TC, CTL or killer T cell) belongs to a sub-group of T lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) which are capable of inducing the death of infected somatic or tumor cells; they kill cells that are infected with viruses (or other... An organ transplant is the transplantation of an organ (or part of one) from one body to another, for the purpose of replacing the recipients damaged or failing organ with a working one from the donor. ... CD8 (cluster of differentiation 8) is a molecule that is expressed on the surface of cytotoxic T cells. ... A helper (or TH) T cell is a T cell (a type of white blood cell) which has on its surface antigen receptors that can bind to fragments of antigens displayed by the Class II MHC molecules found on professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). ... This article or section should be merged with regulatory T cell There were debates over the existence of suppressor cells, but recent years studies have confirmed a central role of suppressor cell populations in regulating immunity. ... Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. ... Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of brain inflammation. ... A lymphocyte is a shown in the center of this picture Memory T cells are a specific type of infection-fighting T cell (also known as a T lymphocyte) that can recognize foreign invaders such as bacteria or viruses, that were encountered during a prior infection or vaccination. ... For the server security software, see Microsoft Forefront. ... Regulatory T cells (also known as suppressor T cells) are a specialized subpopulation of T cells that act to suppress activation of the immune system and thereby maintain immune system homeostasis and tolerance to self. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Thymus, see Thyme. ... Foxp3 is a member of the forkhead/winged-helix family of transcriptional regulators and functions as the master regulator in the development and function of regulatory T cells. ... Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. ... IPEX is the abbreviation for Italian Power EXchange. ... Natural killer T cells (NK T cells) are a type of lymphocyte, or white blood cell. ... The immune system is the collection of organs and tissues involved in the adaptive defense of a body against foreign biological material. ... The innate immune system comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms, in a non-specific manner. ... MHC I (1hsa) vs MHC II (1dlh) (more details. ... γδ T cells represent a small subset of T cells that possess a distinct T cell receptor (TCR) on their surface. ... Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either cytotoxic CD8+ cells or helper CD4+ cells. ... Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either cytotoxic CD8+ cells or helper CD4+ cells. ... A glycoprotein is a macromolecule composed of a protein and a carbohydrate (an oligosaccharide). ... The mucous membranes (or mucosa) are linings of ectodermic origin, covered in epithelium, that line various body cavities and internal organs. ... Intraepithelial lymphocytes are lymphocytes found in the epithelial layer of the gastrointestinal tract. ... Chemical structure of HMB-PP (E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMB-PP) is an intermediate of the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. ... Chemical structure of isopentenyl pyrophosphate. ...

T cell development in the thymus

See Thymocyte for in-depth review of thymic selection Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ...

All T cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. Hematopoietic progenitors derived from hematopoietic stem cells populate the thymus and expand by cell division to generate a large population of immature thymocytes.^[2] The earliest thymocytes express neither CD4 nor CD8, and are therefore classed as double-negative (CD4^-CD8^-) cells. As they progress through their development they become double-positive thymocytes (CD4⁺CD8⁺), and finally mature to single-positive (CD4⁺CD8^- or CD4^-CD8⁺) thymocytes that are then released from the thymus to peripheral tissues. Note that some complexity is omitted from the diagram. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Note that some complexity is omitted from the diagram. ... Thymus, see Thyme. ... Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... Thymus, see Thyme. ...

About 98% of thymocytes die during the development processes in the thymus by failing either positive selection or negative selection, while the other 2% survive and leave the thymus to become mature immunocompetent T cells. Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ...

Positive selection

Double-positive thymocytes move deep into the thymic cortex where they are presented with self-antigens (i.e. antigens that are derived from molecules belonging to the host of the T cell) complexed with MHC molecules on the surface of cortical epithelial cells. Only those thymocytes which bind the MHC/antigen complex with adequate affinity will receive a vital "survival signal." The other thymocytes die by apoptosis (programmed cell death), and their remains are engulfed by macrophages. This process is called positive selection. Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... In anatomy and zoology the cortex is the outermost (or superficial) layer of an organ. ... For the server security software, see Microsoft Forefront. ... MHC I (1hsa) vs MHC II (1dlh) (more details. ... In zootomy, epithelium is a tissue composed of a layer of cells. ... Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... Look up affinity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... A section of mouse liver showing an apoptotic cell indicated by an arrow Apoptosis (pronounced apo tō sis) is a process of suicide by a cell in a multicellular organism. ... A macrophage of a mouse stretching its arms to engulf two particles, possibly pathogens Macrophages (Greek: big eaters, makros = long, phagein = eat) are white blood cells, more specifically phagocytes, acting in the nonspecific defense as well as the specific defense system of vertebrate animals. ...

Whether a thymocyte becomes a CD4+ cell or a CD8+ cell is also determined during positive selection. Double-positive cells that are positively selected on MHC class II molecules will become CD4+ cells, and cells positively selected on MHC class I molecules will become CD8+ cells.

Negative selection

Thymocytes that survive positive selection migrate towards the boundary of the thymic cortex and thymic medulla. While in the medulla, they are again presented with self-antigen in complex with MHC molecules on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells and macrophages. Thymocytes that interact too strongly with the antigen receive an apoptosis signal that causes their death; the vast majority of all thymocytes initially produced end up dying during thymic selection. A small minority of the surviving cells is selected to become regulatory T cells. The remaining cells will then exit the thymus as mature naive T cells. This process is called negative selection, an important mechanism of immunological tolerance that prevents the formation of self-reactive T cells capable of generating autoimmune disease in the host. Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... Medulla in general means the inner part, and derives from the Latin word for marrow. In medicine it is contrasted to the cortex. ... An antigen presenting cell (APC) is a cell that displays foreign antigen complexed with MHC on its surface. ... Dendritic cells (DC) are immune cells and form part of the mammal immune system. ... A macrophage of a mouse stretching its arms to engulf two particles, possibly pathogens Macrophages (Greek: big eaters, makros = long, phagein = eat) are white blood cells, more specifically phagocytes, acting in the nonspecific defense as well as the specific defense system of vertebrate animals. ... Thymocytes are T cell precursors which develop in the thymus. ... A section of mouse liver showing an apoptotic cell indicated by an arrow Apoptosis (pronounced apo tō sis) is a process of suicide by a cell in a multicellular organism. ... Regulatory T cells (also known as suppressor T cells) are a specialized subpopulation of T cells that act to suppress activation of the immune system and thereby maintain immune system homeostasis and tolerance to self. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. ...

T cell activation

Although the specific mechanisms of activation vary slightly between different types of T cells, the "two-signal model" in CD4+ T cells holds true for most. Activation of CD4+ T cells occurs through the engagement of both the T cell receptor and CD28 on the T cell by the Major histocompatibility complex peptide and B7 family members on the APC respectively. Both are required for production of an effective immune response; in the absence of CD28 co-stimulation, T cell receptor signalling alone results in anergy. The signalling pathways downstream from both CD28 and the T cell receptor involve many proteins. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 396 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (686 × 1038 pixel, file size: 232 KB, MIME type: image/png) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): T cell Adaptive immune system TGN1412... Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either cytotoxic CD8+ cells or helper CD4+ cells. ... Structure of human CD28. ... MHC I (1hsa) vs MHC II (1dlh) (more details. ... Peptides (from the Greek πεπτος, digestible), are the family of short molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various α-amino acids. ... B7 is a type of peripheral membrane protein found on activated antigen presenting cells (APC) that, when paired with either a CD28 or CD152 (CTLA-4) surface protein on a T cell, can produce a costimulatory signal to enhance the activity of a MHC-TCR signal between the APC and... An antigen-presenting cell (APC) is a cell that displays foreign antigen complexed with MHC on its surface. ... During the activation of T cells, co-stimulation of molecules is often crucial to the development of an effective immune response. ... Anergy is a theory in immunobiology in which there is a lack of reaction by the bodys defence mechanisms when foreign substances come into contact with the body. ... Structure of human CD28. ...

The first signal is provided by binding of the T cell receptor to a short peptide presented by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on another cell. This ensures that only a T cell with a TCR specific to that peptide is activated. The partner cell is usually a professional antigen presenting cell (APC), usually a dendritic cell in the case of naïve responses, although B cells and macrophages can be important APCs. The peptides presented to CD8+ T cells by MHC class I molecules are 8-9 amino acids in length; the peptides presented to CD4+ cells by MHC class II molecules are longer, as the ends of the binding cleft of the MHC class II molecule are open. Dendritic cells (DC) are immune cells and form part of the mammal immune system. ... Naive T cell refers to a T cell that has differentiated in bone marrow, and successfully undergone the positive and negative processes of central selection in the thymus. ... CD8 (cluster of differentiation 8) is a molecule that is expressed on the surface of cytotoxic T cells. ... CD4 (cluster of differentiation 4) is a molecule that is expressed on the surface of T helper cells (as well as regulatory T cells and dendritic cells). ... MHC may refer to: Major histocompatibility complex, a highly polymorphic region on chromosome 6 with genes particularly involved in immune functions Managed health care Mars Hill College, a coeducational liberal-arts college affiliated with the North Carolina Baptist Convention in Mars Hill, North Carolina, USA Matthew Henry Commentary (Biblical) Mental...

The second signal comes from co-stimulation, in which surface receptors on the APC are induced by a relatively small number of stimuli, usually products of pathogens, but sometimes breakdown products of cells, such as necrotic-bodies or heat-shock proteins. The only co-stimulatory receptor expressed constitutively by naïve T cells is CD28, so co-stimulation for these cells comes from the CD80 and CD86 proteins on the APC. Other receptors are expressed upon activation of the T cell, such as OX40 and ICOS, but these largely depend upon CD28 for their expression. The second signal licenses the T cell to respond to an antigen. Without it, the T cell becomes anergic and it becomes more difficult for it to activate in future. This mechanism prevents inappropriate responses to self, as self-peptides will not usually be presented with suitable co-stimulation. Necrosis (in Greek Νεκρός = Dead) is the name given to accidental death of cells and living tissue. ... Heat shock proteins (HSP) are a group of proteins whose expression is increased when the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures. ... Structure of human CD28. ... The protein CD80 is a molecule which provides a costimulatory signal necessary for T cell activation and survival. ... The protein CD86 is a molecule which provides a costimulatory signal necessary for T cell activation and survival. ... Activated T cells produce OX40, a biologic molecule, within 1 or 2 days of their activation. ... CD278 or ICOS (Inducible T-cell COStimulator) is a CD28-superfamily costimulatory molecule that is expressed on activated T cells. ... Structure of human CD28. ... Anergy is a theory in immunobiology in which there is a lack of reaction by the bodys defence mechanisms when foreign substances come into contact with the body. ...

The T cell receptor exists as a complex of several proteins. The actual T cell receptor is composed of two separate peptide chains which are produced from the independent T cell receptor alpha and beta (TCRα and TCRβ) genes. The other proteins in the complex are the CD3 proteins; CD3εγ and CD3εδ heterodimers and most importantly a CD3ζ homodimer which has a total of six ITAM motifs. The ITAM motifs on the CD3ζ can be phosphorylated by Lck and in turn recruit ZAP-70. Lck and/or ZAP-70 can also phosphorylate the tyrosines on many other molecules, not least CD28, Trim, LAT and SLP-76, which allows the aggregation of signalling complexes around these proteins. Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either cytotoxic CD8+ cells or helper CD4+ cells. ... CD3 or CD-3 is an abbreviation with multiple meanings, including: Ford CD3 platform MediaMax CD-3, a copy protection scheme a 3-inch CD or MiniCD This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... An immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) is a conserved sequence of four amino acids that is repeated twice in the cytoplasmic tails of certain cell surface proteins of the immune system. ... ZAP-70 is an abbrevation for Zeta-chain-associated protein kinase 70 (70 is the molecular weight in kDa). ... Rickenbacker International Airport (airport code: LCK) is located in Columbus, Ohio. ... ZAP-70 is an abbrevation for Zeta-chain-associated protein kinase 70 (70 is the molecular weight in kDa). ... Tyrosine (from the Greek tyros, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in cheese[1][2]), 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, or 2-amino-3(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propanoic acid, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. ... Structure of human CD28. ... The word trim can mean: Adjustment of sails on a ship or boat. ... The lat (in Latvian: lats, plural lati, the ISO 4217 currency code: LVL) is the official currency of Latvia. ... SLP-76 is a gene which encodes a signal transducing adaptor protein. ...

Phosphorylated LAT recruits SLP-76 to the membrane, where it can then bring in PLCγ, VAV1, Itk and potentially PI3K. Both PLCγ and PI3K which act on PI(4,5)P2 on the inner leaflet of the membrane to create the active intermediaries di-acyl glycerol (DAG), inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and phosphatidlyinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3). DAG binds and activates some PKCs, most importantly in T cells PKCθ, which is important for activating the transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1. IP3 is released from the membrane by PLCγ and diffuses rapidly to activate receptors on the ER which induce the release of calcium. The released calcium then activates calcineurin, and calcineurin activates NFAT, which then translocates to the nucleus. NFAT is a transcription factor which activates the transcription of a pleiotropic set of genes, most notably IL-2, a cytokine which promotes long term proliferation of activated T cells. Linker of Activated T cells (LAT) is a transmembrane adapter protein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched microdomains (GEMs)[1]. LAT was described in the early 1990s as a phosphoprotein of 36–38 kDa (pp. ... SLP-76 is a gene which encodes a signal transducing adaptor protein. ... Phospholipase C is a key enzyme in phosphatidylinositol (PIP2) metabolism and lipid signaling pathways. ... Itk is a framework for building mega-widgets using the [incr Tcl] object system. ... Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI 3-kinases or PI3Ks) are a family of related enzymes that are capable of phosphorylating the 3 position hydroxyl group of the inositol ring of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns)[1]. The various 3-phosphorylated phosphoinositides that are produced by PI 3-kinases (PtdIns3P, PtdIns(3,4)P2, PtdIns... Phospholipase C is a key enzyme in phosphatidylinositol (PIP2) metabolism and lipid signaling pathways. ... Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI 3-kinases or PI3Ks) are a family of related enzymes that are capable of phosphorylating the 3 position hydroxyl group of the inositol ring of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns)[1]. The various 3-phosphorylated phosphoinositides that are produced by PI 3-kinases (PtdIns3P, PtdIns(3,4)P2, PtdIns... Protein kinase C (PKC, EC 2. ... NF-κB, or Nuclear Factor kappa B, is a nuclear transcription factor found in all cell types and is involved in cellular responses to stimuli such as stress, cytokines, free radicals, ultraviolet irradiation, and bacterial or viral antigens. ... IP3 can refer to the following: Inositol triphosphate (biochemistry) Third-order_intercept_point (radiocommunication) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Phospholipase C is a key enzyme in phosphatidylinositol (PIP2) metabolism and lipid signaling pathways. ... The endoplasmic reticulum or ER is an organelle found in all eukaryotic cells that is an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles and cisternae that is responsible for several specialized functions: Protein translation, folding, and transport of proteins to be used in the cell membrane (e. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... Calcineurin (CN) is a protein phosphatase also known as protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B). ... Calcineurin (CN) is a protein phosphatase also known as protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B). ... Nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) is a general name applied to a family of transcription factors shown to be important in immune response. ... In molecular biology, a transcription factor is a protein that binds DNA at a specific promoter or enhancer region or site, where it regulates transcription. ... The abbreviation IL-2 can refer to: Interleukin-2, a cytokine responsible for stimulating the growth of T-lymphocytes. ...

See also

• Naive T cell
• Memory T cells
• γδ T cells

Naive T cell refers to a T cell that has differentiated in bone marrow, and successfully undergone the positive and negative processes of central selection in the thymus. ... A lymphocyte is a shown in the center of this picture Memory T cells are a specific type of infection-fighting T cell (also known as a T lymphocyte) that can recognize foreign invaders such as bacteria or viruses, that were encountered during a prior infection or vaccination. ... γδ T cells represent a small subset of T cells that possess a distinct T cell receptor (TCR) on their surface. ...

References

1. ^ An integrated view of suppressor T cell subsets in immunoregulation.
2. ^ Schwarz BA, Bhandoola A. Trafficking from the bone marrow to the thymus: a prerequisite for thymopoiesis. Immunol Rev 209:47, 2006. full text

External links

• [1], Immunobiology, 5th edition, Janeway, Charles A.; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark. New York and London: Garland Publishing; c2001.