China is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with written records dating back at least 3,500 years, and with 5,000 years being commonly used by Chinese as the age of their civilization.
Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of Xi'an; hence the new era is termed the Eastern Han Dynasty (東漢朝).
Emperor Kangxi commanded the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters ever put together at the time, and under Emperor Qianlong, the compilation of a catalogue of the important works on Chinese culture was made.
China, for instance, was not a backward country unable to secure the prerequisite stability and security for western-style commerce, but a relatively stable empire unwilling to admit global commerce.
The Empress Dowager Cixi, concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor, the mother of child emperor Tongzhi, and Aunt of Guangxu successfully controlled the Qing government and was the de facto leader of China for close to 40 years.
During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example, members of his family were distinguished by garments with a large circular emblem on the back, whereas a Han could only hope to wear clothing with a square emblem; this meant effectively that any guard in the court could immediately distinguish family members from the back view alone.
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