NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Termite

Termites, sometimes known as white ants, are a group of social insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera. (This has been challenged by recent research, see taxonomy below.) Termites usually prefer to feed on dead plant material, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, or soil, and about 10% of the 4,000 odd species (about 2,600 taxonomically known) are economically significant as pests that can cause serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests. Termites are major detrivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and other plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. For other uses, see Ant (disambiguation). ... Social refers to human society or its organization. ... Orders Subclass Apterygota Archaeognatha (bristletails) Thysanura (silverfish) Subclass Pterygota Infraclass Paleoptera (Probably paraphyletic) Ephemeroptera (mayflies) Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) Infraclass Neoptera Superorder Exopterygota Grylloblattodea (ice-crawlers) Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) Plecoptera (stoneflies) Embioptera (webspinners) Zoraptera (angel insects) Dermaptera (earwigs) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) Phasmatodea (stick insects) Blattodea (cockroaches) Isoptera (termites) Mantodea (mantids) Psocoptera... For the science of classifying living things, see alpha taxonomy. ... In scientific classification used in biology, the order (Latin: ordo, plural ordines) is a rank between class and family (termed a taxon at that rank). ... Detritus may refer to: In geology, detritus is the name for loose fragments of rock that have been worn away by erosion. ... Detritivores (also detrivores or detritus feeders) are animals that recycle detritus (decomposing organic material), returning it into the food chain. ... Topic can refer to: The topic or theme of a proposition in linguistics An XML topic (a kind of resource) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Ecology is the branch of science that studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. ...

As social insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. They are a prime example of decentralised, self-organised systems using swarm intelligence and use this cooperation to exploit food sources and environments that could not be available to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both genders, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens. Eusociality is the phenomenon of reproductive specialisation found in some species of animal, whereby a specialised caste carries out reproduction in a colony of non-reproductive animals. ... Decentralisation (American: decentralization) is any of various means of more widely distributing decision-making to bring it closer to the point of service or action. ... Self-organization refers to a process in which the internal organization of a system, normally an open system, increases automatically without being guided or managed by an outside source. ... Swarm intelligence (SI) is an artificial intelligence technique based around the study of collective behavior in decentralized, self-organized systems. ... For other uses of nymph see Nymph (disambiguation). ...

Reproductives

A female that has flown, mated and is producing eggs, is called a "Queen". Similarly, a male that has flown, mated and remains in proximity to a queen, is termed a "King". These anthropocentric terms have caused great misunderstanding of colony dynamics. Research using genetic techniques to determine relatedness of colony members is showing that the idea that colonies are headed by a monogamous royal pair is at least sometimes incorrect. Multiple pairs of reproductives within a colony are not uncommon, but for the families Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae, at least, sperm competition does not seem to occur (male genitalia are very simple and the sperm are anucleate), suggesting that only one male (king) generally mates within the colony. Termite alates in spring, Hemingway, South Carolina Image copyleft: Image taken by me, released under GFDL Pollinator 15:39, Jun 2, 2004 (UTC) ( ) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Termite alates in spring, Hemingway, South Carolina Image copyleft: Image taken by me, released under GFDL Pollinator 15:39, Jun 2, 2004 (UTC) ( ) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

At maturity, a primary queen can lay several thousand eggs a day. In physogastric species, the queen adds an extra set of ovaries with each moult, resulting in a greatly distended abdomen and increased fecundity. The distended abdomen increases her size in some species to as much as 10 centimetres, hundreds of times the original size, effectively immobilizing her. In times where these huge queens must be moved to a new chamber it requires a group effort to move her and hundreds of workers are required to push her. The queen is widely believed to be a primary source of pheromones useful in colony integration. As a reward for attending workers a juice is secreted from the queen's posterior for the workers to drink. Ecdysis is the molting of the cuticula in arthropods and related groups (Ecdysozoa). ... For the human abdomen, see human abdomen. ... Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an organism or population, measured by the number of gametes (e. ... Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonov gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive A pheromone is a chemical that triggers an innate behavioural response in another member of the same species. ...

The king remains only slightly bigger than an average termite and continues to mate with the queen for life. This is very different from ant societies, which have colonies with only a queen which mates once with the male(s) and stores his gametes for life. Males in ant colonies die immediately after mating, unlike termite male alates, which become kings and live with the queen. Gametes (in Greek: γαμέτες) —also known as sex cells, germ cells, or spores—are the specialized cells that come together during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. ...

The alate caste, also referred to as the reproductive caste, are generally the only termites with well-developed eyes (although workers of some harvesting species do have well-developed compound eyes and in other species soldiers with eyes occasionally appear). Immature alates still going through incomplete metamorphosis form a sub-caste in certain species of termites, functioning as functional workers ('pseudergates') and also as potential supplementary reproductives. Supplementaries have the ability to replace a dead primary reproductive and in at least some species several are recruited once a primary queen is lost.

In areas with a distinct dry season, the alates leave the nest in large swarms after the first good soaking rain of the rainy season. They are relatively poor flyers and are blown downwind, shedding their wings as soon as they land, where they mate and attempt to form a nest in the damp earth.

Workers

Worker termites undertake the labours of foraging, food storage, brood, nest maintenance and some of the defense effort in certain species. Workers are the main caste in the colony for the digestion of cellulose in food. This is achieved in one of two ways. In all termite families except the Termitidae, there are flagellates (Protista) in the gut that assist in cellulose digestion. However, in the Termitidae, which account for approximately 60% of all termite species, the flagellates have been lost and this digestive role is taken up, in part, by a consortium of prokaryotic organisms. This simple story, which has been in Entomology textbooks for decades, is complicated by the finding that all studied termites can produce their own cellulase enzymes, and therefore can digest wood in the absence of their symbiotic microbes. Our knowledge of the relationships between the microbial and termite parts of their digestion is still rudimentary. What is true in all termite species, however, is that the workers feed the other members of the colony with substances derived from the digestion of plant material, either from the mouth or anus This process of feeding of one colony member by another is known as trophallaxis, and is one of the keys to the success of the group as it frees the parents from feeding the young, allowing for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that the gut symbionts are transferred from one generation to another. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1638x1080, 440 KB) I, Althepal, photographed this worker termite. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1638x1080, 440 KB) I, Althepal, photographed this worker termite. ... Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... A flagellum (plural, flagella) is a whip-like organelle that many unicellular organisms, and some multicellular ones, use to move about. ... Typical phyla Chromalveolata Chromista Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora (ciliates) Cabozoa Excavata Euglenozoa Percolozoa Metamonada Rhizaria Radiolaria Foraminifera Cercozoa Archaeplastida (in part) Rhodophyta (red algae) Glaucophyta (basal archaeplastids) Amoebozoa Choanozoa Many others; classification varies Protists (IPA: (RP); (GenAm)), Greek protiston -a meaning the (most) first of all... Prokaryotes are unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular) organisms without a nucleus. ... Not to be confused with Etymology, the study of the history of words. ... Cellulase is an enzyme complex which breaks down cellulose to beta-glucose. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... This article is about the bodily orifice. ...

Termite workers are generally blind due to undeveloped eyes. Despite this limitation they are able to create elaborate nests and tunnel systems using a combination of soil, chewed wood /cellulose, saliva and faeces. Some species have been known to create such durable walls that industrial machinery has been damaged in an attempt to break their tall mounds. Some African and Australian species have mounds more than 4 metres high. The nest is created and maintained by workers with many distinct features such as housing the brood, water collection through condensation, reproductive chambers, and tunnel networks that effectively provide air conditioning. A few species even practice agriculture, collecting plant matter to feed fungal gardens, upon which the colony then feed.

Soldiers

The soldier caste has anatomical and behavioural specializations, primarily useful against ant attack. The proportion of soldiers within a colony varies both within and between species. Many soldiers have jaws so enlarged that they cannot feed themselves, but instead, like juveniles, are fed by workers. The pan-tropical sub family Nasutitermitinae (which should probably have the South American species separated) have soldiers with the ability to exude noxious liquids through either a horn-like nozzle (nasus) or simple hole in the head (fontanelle). Fontanelles which exude defensive secretions are also a feature of the family Rhinotermitidae. Many species are readily identified using the characteristics of the soldiers' heads, mandibles, or nasus. Among the drywood termites, a soldier's globular ("phragmotic") head can be used to block their narrow tunnels. Termite soldiers are usually blind, but in some families, soldiers developing from the reproductive line have at least partly functional eyes. Image File history File links Nasutes. ... Image File history File links Nasutes. ... In human anatomy, a fontanelle (or fontanel) is one of two soft spots on a newborn humans skull. ...

It's generally accepted that the specialization of the soldier caste is principally a defense against predation by ants. The wide range of jaw types and phragmotic heads provides methods which effectively block narrow termite tunnels against ant entry. A tunnel-blocking soldier can rebuff attacks from many ants. Usually more soldiers stand by behind the initial soldier so once the first one falls another soldier will take the place. In cases where the intrusion is coming from a breach that is larger than the soldier's head, defense requires special formations where soldiers form a phalanx-like formation around the breach blindly biting at intruders or shooting toxic glue from the nasus. This formation involves self sacrifice because once the workers have repaired the breach during fighting no return is provided, causing the death of all the defenders. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Macedonian phalanx formation showing the employment of Macedonian spear or sarissas making the formation nearly impregnable from the front but cumbersome, tactically unwieldy and vulnerable from side or rear A phalanx (plural phalanxes or phalanges) is a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears... Nasus is Latin for nose or snout, and appears in many related terms: Look up nasus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Termites undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with their freshly hatched young taking the form of tiny termites that grow without significant morphological changes. Some species of termite have been known to have small groups of extremely large soldiers (3*normal size). Though their value is unknown speculation indicates that they may function as an elite class that defends only the inner tunnels of the mound. Evidence for this is that, even when provoked, these large soldiers do not defend themselves but retreat deeper into the mound. Some termite taxa do not have any soldiers; perhaps the best known of these is the Apicotermitinae. A Pieris rapae larva An older Pieris rapae larva A Pieris rapae pupa A Pieris rapae adult Metamorphosis is a process in biology by which an individual physically develops after birth or hatching, and involves significant change in form as well as growth and differentiation. ...

Diet

Termites are generally grouped according to their feeding behaviour. Thus the commonly used general groupings are: Subterranean, Soil-feeding, Drywood, Dampwood and Grass eating. Of these, subterraneans and drywoods are primarily responsible for damage to human structures.

All termites eat cellulose in its various forms as plant fiber. Cellulose is a rich energy source (think of the amount of energy released when wood is burned), but remains difficult to digest. Termites rely primarily upon symbiotic protozoa (metamonads) such as Trichonympha, and other microbes in their gut to digest the cellulose for them, absorbing the end products for their own use. Gut protozoa such as Trichonympha, in turn rely on symbiotic bacteria embedded on their surfaces to produce some of the necessary digestive enzymes. This relationship is one of the finest examples of mutualism among animals. Most so called "higher termites", especially in the Family Termitidae can produce their own cellulase enzymes. However, they still retain a rich gut fauna with bacteria dominant. Due to closely related bacterial species, it is strongly presumed that the termites' gut flora are descended from the gut flora of the ancestral wood-eating cockroachs, like those of the genus Cryptocercus. Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Classes & orders Eopharyngia Retortamonadida Diplomonadida Carpediemonas Parabasalia Anaeromonada Oxymonadida Trimastix The metamonads are a group of flagellate protozoa, including the retortamonads, diplomonads, and possibly the parabasalids and oxymonads as well. ... Trichonympha is a genus of metamonad protists (relatives of the infamous Giardia parasites) that live in the intestines of many, if not most, termite species. ... A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). ... Trichonympha is a genus of metamonad protists (relatives of the infamous Giardia parasites) that live in the intestines of many, if not most, termite species. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Look up Family in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Cellulase is an enzyme complex which breaks down cellulose to beta-glucose. ... Species Cryptocercus clevelandi Cryptocercus darwini Cryptocercus garciai Cryptocercus primarius Cryptocercus punctulatus Cryptocercus relictus Cryptocercus wrighti Cryptocercus is a genus of cockroaches in the family Cryptocercidae, of which this genus is the only member. ...

Some species of termite practice fungiculture - they maintain a 'garden' of specialized fungi of genus Termitomyces, which are nourished by the excrement of the insects. When the fungi in turn are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the intestines of the termites, to complete the cycle by germinating in the fresh faecal pellets.^[1]^[2] Termitomyces is a genus of basidiomycete fungus belonging to the family Tricholomataceae. ...

Mounds

Termites build nests to house their colonies, in growing trees, inside fallen trees, underground, and in above-ground mounds which they construct, commonly called "anthills" in Africa and Australia, despite the technical incorrectness of that name. In tropical savannas the mounds may be very large, with an extreme of 9 metres (30 ft) high in the case of large conical mounds constructed by some Macrotermes species in well-wooded areas in Africa,^[3] though 2–3 m would be typical for the largest mounds in most savannas. The shape ranges form somewhat amorphous domes or cones usually covered in grass and/or woody shrubs, to sculptured hard earth mounds, or a mixture of the two. Tropical Savannas (alternate spelling savannah) are a grassland biome, dotted with trees, generally located at tropical latitudes. ...

The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms, such as those of the compass termite (Amitermes meridionalis & A. laurensis) which build tall wedge-shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north-south. This orientation has been experimentally shown to help in thermoregulation. Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when temperature surrounding is very different. ...

The column of hot air rising in the above ground mounds helps drive air circulation currents inside the subterranean network. The structure of these mounds can be quite complex. The temperature control is essential for those species that cultivate fungal gardens and even for those that don't, much effort and energy is spent maintaining the brood within a narrow temperature range, often only plus or minus one degree C over a day.

In some parts of the African savanna a high density of above-ground mounds dominates the landscape. For instance in some parts of the Busanga Plain area of Zambia, small mounds of about 1 m diameter with a density of about 100 per hectare can be seen on grassland between larger tree- and bush-covered mounds about 25 m in diameter with a density around 1 per hectare, and both show up well on high-resolution satellite images taken in the wet season.^[4].

Human interaction

Because of their wood-eating habits, termites sometimes do great damage to buildings and other wooden structures. Their habit of remaining concealed often results in their presence being undetected until the timbers are severely damaged and exhibit surface changes. Once termites have entered a building they do not limit themselves just to wood, also damaging paper, cloth, carpets, and other cellulosic materials. Often, other soft materials are damaged and may be used for construction. Particles taken from soft plastics, plaster, rubber and sealants such as silicon rubber and acrylics are often employed in construction. Download high resolution version (1542x1200, 517 KB)The result of an infestation is an expensive repair to the building structure. ... Download high resolution version (1542x1200, 517 KB)The result of an infestation is an expensive repair to the building structure. ... For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that Textile be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Carpet (disambiguation). ...

Termites usually avoid exposure to unfavourable environmental conditions. They tend to remain hidden in tunnels in earth and wood. Where they need to cross an impervious or unfavourable substrate, they cover their tracks with tubing made of faeces, plant matter, and soil. Sometimes these shelter tubes will extend for many metres, such as up the outside of a tree reaching from the soil to dead branches. Most termite barrier systems used for buildings aim to prevent concealed termite access, thus forcing them out into the open where they must form clearly visible shelter tubes to gain entry.

Avoiding termite troubles

Precautions: Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 879 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1600 Ã— 1200 pixel, file size: 879 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

When termites have already penetrated a building, the first action is usually to destroy the colony with insecticides before removing the termites' means of access and fixing the problems that encouraged them in the first place. Baits (feeder stations) with small quantities of disruptive insect hormones or other very slow acting toxins have become the preferred least-toxic management tool in most western countries. This has replaced the dusting of toxins direct into termite tunnels which had been widely done since the early 1930s (originating in Australia). The main dust toxicants have been the inorganic metallic poison arsenic trioxide, insect growth regulators (hormones) such as Triflumuron and, more recently, fipronil. Blowing dusts into termite workings is a highly skilled process. All these slow-acting poisons can be distributed by the workers for considerable periods (hours to weeks) before any symptoms occur and are capable of destroying the entire colony. More modern variations include chlorfluazuron, Diflubenzuron, hexaflumuron, and Novaflumuron as bait toxicants and fipronil and imidacloprid as soil poisons. Soil poisons are the least-preferred method of control as this requires much larger doses of toxin and results in uncontrollable release to the environment. This article is about the construction material. ... For other uses, see Steel (disambiguation). ... This article refers to the building structure component; for the fraternal organization, see Freemasonry. ... Timber treatment or lumber treatment in forestry describes the intensive treatment of timber with chemical agents to increase its durability and ability to be used in an otherwise inappropriate situation like inground use. ... It has been suggested that ovicide be merged into this article or section. ... R-phrases , , , S-phrases , , , Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, Îµr, etc. ... For other uses, see Hormone (disambiguation). ... Fipronil is the active ingredient in Frontline, a topical flea control commonly used on dogs and cats. ... For other uses, see Poison (disambiguation). ... Fipronil is the active ingredient in Frontline, a topical flea control commonly used on dogs and cats. ... Imidacloprid is an insecticide developed and marketed by Bayer Cropscience (part of the drug and chemical conglomerate Bayer AG) under the trade name Merit ®. It is notable for its relatively low toxicity to most animals other than insects, due to its specificity for the type of synapse which is found...

Termites in the human diet

The alates are nutritious, having a good store of fat and protein, and are palatable in most species with a nutty flavour when cooked. They are easily gathered at the beginning of the rainy season in Central and Southern Africa when they swarm, as they are attracted to a lights and can be gathered up when they land on nets put up around a lamp. The wings are shed and can be removed by a technique similar to winnowing. They are best gently roasted on a hot plate or lightly fried until slightly crisp, oil is not usually needed since their bodies are naturally high in oil. Traditionally they make a welcome treat at the beginning of the rainy season when livestock is lean, new crops have not yet produced food and stored produce from the previous growing season is running low. Central Africa Middle Africa (UN subregion) Central African Federation (defunct) Central Africa is a core region of the African continent often considered to include: Burundi Central African Republic Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Rwanda Middle Africa (as used by the United Nations when categorising geographic subregions) is an analogous... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ... Wind winnowing is a method developed by ancient cultures for agricultural purposes. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with vegetable oil. ...

Ecology

Ecologically, termites are important in nutrient recycling, habitat creation, soil formation and quality and, particularly the winged reproductives, as food for countless predators. The role of termites in hollowing timbers and thus providing shelter and increased wood surface areas for other creatures is critical for the survival of a large number of timber-inhabiting species. Larger termite mounds play a role in providing a habitat for plants and animals, especially on plains in Africa which are seasonally inundated by a rainy season, providing a retreat above the water for smaller animals and birds, and a growing medium for woody shrubs with root systems that cannot withstand inundation for several weeks. In addition, scorpions, lizards, snakes, small mammals and birds live in abandoned or weathered mounds, and aardvarks dig substantial caves and burrows in them, which then become homes for larger animals such as hyenas and mongooses. A nutrient is either a chemical element or compound used in an organisms metabolism or physiology. ... Habitat (which is Latin for it inhabits) is the place where a particular species live and grow. ... Loess field in Germany Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, Northern Ireland For the American hard rock band, see SOiL. For the System of a Down song, see Soil (song). ... This snapping turtle is trying to make a meal of a Canada goose, but the goose is too wary. ... This picture shows the flood plain following a 1 in 10 year flood on the Isle of Wight. ... The wet season is a term commonly used when describing the weather in the tropics. ... Superfamilies Pseudochactoidea Buthoidea Chaeriloidea Chactoidea Iuroidea Scorpionoidea See classification for families. ... For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Aardvark (disambiguation). ... Subfamilies and Genera Hyaeninae Crocuta Hyaena Parahyaena Protelinae Proteles Hyenas or HyÃ¦nas are moderately large terrestrial carnivores native to Africa, Arabia, Asia and the Indian subcontinent. ... For other uses, see Mongoose (disambiguation). ...

As detrivores, termites clear away leaf and woody litter and so reduce the severity of the annual bushfires in African savannas, which are not as destructive as those in Australia and the USA. Detritivores (also detrivores or detritus feeders) are animals that recycle detritus (decomposing organic material), returning it into the food chain. ...

Globally termites are found roughly between 50 degrees North & South, with the greatest biomass in the tropics and the greatest diversity in tropical forests and Mediterranean shrublands. Termites are also considered to be a major source of atmospheric methane, one of the prime greenhouse gases. Termites have been common since at least the Cretaceous period. For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula . ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... // The Cretaceous Period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period (i. ...

Relationships and evolutionary history

The oldest unambiguous termite fossils date to the early Cretaceous although structures from the late Triassic have been interpreted as fossilized termite nests.^[5] Given the diversity of Cretaceous termites, it is likely that they had their origin at least sometime in the Jurassic. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 696 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1304 Ã— 1124 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 696 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1304 Ã— 1124 pixel, file size: 1. ... Copal is a type of resin, sometimes referred to as pom (the Maya language name). ... A fossil Ammonite Fossils are the mineralized remains of animals or plants or other traces such as footprints. ... // The Cretaceous Period is one of the major divisions of the geologic timescale, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period (i. ... The Jurassic Period is a major unit of the geologic timescale that extends from about 199. ...

It has long been accepted that termites are closely related to cockroaches and mantids, and they are classified in the same superorder (Dictyoptera), but new research has shed light on the details of termite evolution.^[6] There is now strong evidence suggesting that termites are really highly modified, social, wood-eating cockroaches. A study conducted by scientists has found that endosymbiotic bacteria from termites and a genus of cockroaches, Cryptocercus, share the strongest phylogenetical similarities out of all other cockroaches. Both termites and Cryptocercus also share similar morphological and social features -- most cockroaches do not show social characteristics, but Cryptocercus takes care of its young and exhibits other social behavior. Additionally, the primitive termite Mastotermes darwiniensis exhibits numerous cockroach-like characteristics that are not shared with other termites. For other uses, see Cockroaches. ... For the self-defence technique, see Praying mantis kung fu. ... Orders Blattaria (cockroaches) Mantodea (mantids) Dictyoptera includes two groups of insects, the Blattaria (cockroaches) and the Mantodea (mantids, or praying mantises). ... An endosymbiont (also known as intracellular symbiont) is any organism that lives within cells of another organism, i. ... Species Cryptocercus clevelandi Cryptocercus darwini Cryptocercus garciai Cryptocercus primarius Cryptocercus punctulatus Cryptocercus relictus Cryptocercus wrighti Cryptocercus is a genus of cockroaches in the family Cryptocercidae, of which this genus is the only member. ...

Plant defenses against termites

Many plants have developed effective defenses against termites and in most ecosystems there is an observable balance between the growth of plants and the feeding of termites. Typically defence is achieved by secreting into the woody cell walls, antifeedant chemicals (such as oils, resins, and lignins) which reduce the ability of termites to efficiently digest the cellulose. Many of the strongly termite resistant tree species have heartwood timber that is extremely dense (such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis) due to accretion of these resins. Over the years there has been considerable research into these natural defensive chemicals with scientists seeking to add them to timbers from susceptible trees. A commercial product, "Blockaid^TM", has been developed in Australia which uses a range of plant extracts to create a paint-on non-toxic termite barrier for buildings. In 2005, a group of Australian scientists "discovered" (announced) a treatment based on an extract of a species of Eremophila that repels termites.^[7] Tests have shown that termites are strongly repelled by the toxic material to the extent that they will starve rather than cross treated samples and when kept in close proximity to the extract become disoriented and eventually die. These scientists hope to use this toxic compound commercially to prevent termite feeding. In ecology, an ecosystem is a community of organisms (plant, animal and other living organisms - also referred as biocenose) together with their environment (or biotope), functioning as a unit. ... Synthetic motor oil For other uses, see Oil (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Lignin (sometimes lignen) is a chemical compound (complex, highly cross-linked aromatic polymer) that is most commonly derived from wood and is an integral part of the cell walls of plants, especially in tracheids, xylem fibres and sclereids. ... Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... A tree trunk as found at the Veluwe, The Netherlands Wood is a material found as the primary content of the stems of woody plants, especially trees, but also shrubs. ... Binomial name Dehnh. ... Eremophila, or Emu Bush, is a genus of plants of the family Myoporaceae. ...

Taxonomy

Recent DNA evidence has supported the nearly 120 year-old hypothesis, originally based on morphology, that termites are most closely related to the species of wood-eating cockroaches (genus Cryptocercus). Most recently this has led some authors to propose that termites be reclassified as a single family, Termitidae, within the order Blattodea, which contains cockroaches ^[8]^[9]. However, most researchers advocate the less drastic measure of retaining the termites as Isoptera but as a group subordinate to true roaches, preserving the internal classification of termites ^[10]. For other uses, see Cockroaches. ... Families Blaberidae Blattellidae Blattidae Cryptocercidae Polyphagidae Nocticolidae Blattodea are insects of the order (formerly Blattaria) that includes cockroaches. ...

The most current classification of termites is summarized by Engel & Krishna (2004). Mastotermes darwiniensis is a specie of termite found only in northern Australia. ... genera Ahamitermes Amitermes Amphidotermes Cephalotermes Cylindrotermes Drepanotermes Eremotermes Globitermes Gnathamitermes Incolitermes Invasitermes Labritermes Microcerotermes Orientotermes Prohamitermes Pseudhamitermes Pseudomicrotermes Synhamitermes Amitermitinae constitute a subfamily of harvester termites & allies (family Termitidae) in the Isoptera order. ...

Termites as a source of power

One of the US Department of Energy's most enduring goals is to replace fossil fuels with renewable sources of cleaner energy, such as hydrogen produced from plant biomass fermentation. Termites may help reach this goal through metagenomics. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy and nuclear safety. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... This article is about industrial fermentation. ...

Termites are capable of producing up to two liters of hydrogen from fermenting a single sheet of paper, making them one of the planet's most efficient bioreactors. Termites achieve this high degree of efficiency by exploiting the metabolic capabilities of about 200 different species of microbes that inhabit their hindguts.

Hydrogen is normally created by using electricity to remove hydrogen molecules from water or natural gas, but the electricity is most often generated using fossil fuels that emit carbon pollutants. The microbial community in the termite gut efficiently manufactures large quantities of clean hydrogen. By sequencing the termite's microbial community, it may be possible to get a better understanding of these biochemical pathways. Families Mastotermitidae Kalotermitidae Termopsidae Hodotermitidae Rhinotermitidae Serritermitidae Termitidae Termites, sometimes known as white ants, are a group of social insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera. ...

Termites eat wood, but cannot extract energy from the complex lignocellulose polymers within it. These polymers are broken down into simple sugars by fermenting bacteria in the termite's gut, using enzymes that produce hydrogen as a byproduct. A second wave of bacteria uses the simple sugars and hydrogen to make the acetate the termite requires for energy. If it can be figured out which enzymes are used to create hydrogen, and which genes produce them, this process could be scaled up with bioreactors to generate hydrogen from woody biomass, such as poplar, in commercial quantities.

Contents

Reproductives

Workers

Soldiers

Diet

Mounds

Human interaction

Avoiding termite troubles

Termites in the human diet

Ecology

Relationships and evolutionary history

Plant defenses against termites

Taxonomy

Termites as a source of power

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Reproductives

Workers

Soldiers

Diet

Mounds

Human interaction GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Avoiding termite troubles

Termites in the human diet

Ecology

Relationships and evolutionary history

Plant defenses against termites

Taxonomy

Termites as a source of power

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Human interaction