Just War theory is an international law doctrine that postulates that a war can be just only if it satisfies a set of moral or legal rules. Although modern Just War theory is based upon a Catholic doctrine, Francisco de Vitoria based his arguments on reason and so put the tradition on a more universal basis. [1] The rules applied may be ethical, religious, or formal (such as international law). This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Doctrine, from Latin doctrina, (compare doctor), means a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. ... An act of war - the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan during World War II War is a state of widespread conflict between states, organisations, or relatively large groups of people, which is characterised by the use of violent, physical force between combatants or upon civilians. ... Francisco de Vitoria (1492-1546) was a Renaissance theologian, founder of the tradition in philosophy known as the School of Salamanca, noted especially for his contributions to the theory of Just War. ... Ethics is the branch of axiology – one of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. ... Fishers of men; Oil on panel by Adriaen van de Venne (1614) Religion—sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system—is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the moral codes, practices, values, and institutions associated with such belief. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

The rules classically cover the justification for the war (Jus ad Bellum) and the conduct of the participants in the war (Jus in Bello). Jus ad Bellum governs the behaviour of the state, while Jus in Bello governs combatants. In more recent years, a third category - Jus post Bellum - has been added, which governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements. Jus ad bellum (Latin for Law to War; see also just war) are a set of criteria that are consulted before engaging in war, in order to determine whether entering into war is justifiable. ... The laws of war (Jus in bello) define the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning civilians. ... Jus ad bellum (Latin for Law to War; see also just war) are a set of criteria that are consulted before engaging in war, in order to determine whether entering into war is justifiable. ... The laws of war (Jus in bello) define the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning civilians. ...

Just War theory has ancient roots. The so-called Song of Deborah in the 5th chapter of the Hebrew Bible's Book of Judges discusses late bronze age conceptions of what distinguishes a "just" holy war. Cicero discussed this idea and its applications. Augustine of Hippo, Thomas Aquinas and Hugo Grotius later codified a set of rules for a just war, which today still encompass the points commonly debated, with some modifications. Deborah or Dvora (דְּבוֹרָה Bee, Standard Hebrew Dəvora, Tiberian Hebrew Dəḇôrāh) was the fourth judge and only female judge of pre-monarchy Israel in the Old Testament / Tanakh. ... 11th century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Targum Hebrew Bible refers to the common portions of the Jewish and Christian canons. ... Book of Judges - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... The Bronze Age is a period in a civilizations development when the most advanced metalworking has developed the techniques of smelting copper from natural outcroppings and alloys it to cast bronze. ... See also Jewish History Jihad Mujahideen Crusade Knights Templars Knights Hospitaliers Jedi ... Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist. ... St. ... St Thomas Aquinas Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – March 7, 1274) was an Italian , Catholic philosopher and theologian in the scholastic tradition. ... Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius (Huig de Groot, or Hugo de Groot; 10th April 1583 - 28th August 1645) worked as a jurist in the Dutch Republic and laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. ...

Why was Just War seen as necessary?

For thousands of years, war has been seen as an unpalatable, abhorrent but inevitable event. In Western history, one of the enduring questions has been: can the use of violence be ever morally justifiable to protect and preserve values? Are there situations or conditions where killing is a moral requirement? If killing can ever be justified, what, if any, moral restrictions should be placed? Just War theory, in essence, is an attempt at justifying war, or an act of war.

While Just War theory holds that killing is, in a general sense, morally unacceptable, it also recognizes that war is inevitable between states and will lead to deaths. Just War theory attempts to define conditions and situations in which the killing of others becomes a moral obligation. The main concern of Just War theory is the protection of innocents and to create rules where deaths can be minimized, and where wars can be fought within defined rules. A Just War, therefore, is not merely defined by purely utilitarian criteria, but also by their means, principles and virtues.

Christian Just War Theory

Saint Augustine may have been the first to detail Christian Just War Theory. His description was essentially identical to the criteria listed above, and was influential in how the theory has been explained since his time. St. ...

Some Christians have also made the example of Deuteronomy 20:8 to be a fundamental precondition for a Just War. This verse allows anyone in the military to go home before any battle without punishment if they do not desire to fight the particular battle. This belief makes the use of a military draft to be automatic proof that the war for which it is used would be unjust. It is additionally contrary to the modern military system of enlistments defined in years or tours of duty because these do not allow soldiers to individually decide the rightness of each battle. However some have argued that the verse refers only to those that are "faint hearted", thus not including those known as conscientious objectors. Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible. ... Conscription is a general term for forced labor demanded by some established authority, e. ... A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, perhaps with any role in the armed forces or just with a particular war. ...

When is a war just by the criteria of Just War Theory?

In modern language, these rules hold that to be just, a war must meet the following criteria before the use of force:
(Jus ad Bellum) Jus ad bellum (Latin for Law to War; see also just war) are a set of criteria that are consulted before engaging in war, in order to determine whether entering into war is justifiable. ...

• Just Cause: force may be used only to correct a grave, public evil, i.e., aggression, self defense, massive violation of the basic rights of whole populations;
• Comparative Justice: while there may be rights and wrongs on all sides of a conflict, to override the presumption against the use of force the injustice suffered by one party must significantly outweigh that suffered by the other;
• Legitimate Authority: only duly constituted public authorities may use deadly force or wage war;
• Right Intention: force may be used only in a truly just cause and solely for that purpose; Correcting a suffered wrong is considered a right intention, while material gain is not.
• Probability of Success: arms may not be used in a futile cause or in a case where disproportionate measures are required to achieve success;
• Proportionality: the overall destruction expected from the use of force must be outweighed by the good to be achieved.[2]
• Last Resort: force may be used only after all peaceful and viable alternatives have been seriously tried and exhausted.

Self defense refers to actions taken by a person to defend onself, ones property or ones home. ... In politics, authority generally refers to the ability to make laws, independent of the power to enforce them, or the ability to permit something. ... Purpose is deliberately thought-through goal-directedness. ...

What about when a "just war" has started?

Once war has begun, just war theory also directs how combatants are to act:
(Jus in Bello) A combatant (also referred to as an enemy combatant) is a soldier or guerrilla member who is waging war. ... The laws of war (Jus in bello) define the conduct and responsibilities of belligerent nations, neutral nations and individuals engaged in warfare, in relation to each other and to protected persons, usually meaning civilians. ...

• Just war conduct should be governed by the principle of discrimination. The acts of war should be directed towards the inflictors of the wrong, and not towards civilians caught in circumstances they did not create. The prohibited acts include bombing civilian residential areas that include no military target and committing acts of terrorism or reprisal against ordinary civilians. Some theologians believe that this rule forbids weapons of mass destruction of any kind, for any reason (such as the use of an atomic bomb).
• Just war conduct should be governed by the principle of proportionality. The force used must be proportional to the wrong endured, and to the possible good that may come. The more disproportional the number of collateral civilian deaths, the more suspect will be the sincerity of a belligerent nation's claim to justness of a war it initiated.
• Torture, of combatants or of non-combatants, is forbidden.
• Prisoners of war must be treated respectfully.

• Many throughout history have considered conscription an unjust means, e.g.

"It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action." -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi in the Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System [3]

The condition of proportionality is often misunderstood. A quote from Ambrosius may well clarify it. Taking an example of a traveler coming to the aid of a fellow traveler who has been attacked by a robber he says "At the same time, the Christian should use no more force than necessary to subdue the attacker, for that person too is someone for whom Christ died. Charity thus justifies the resort to force in defense, not in self but of the other; yet at the same time it limits the force that can be used against the evildoer to what is necessary to end the evil."[4] Hence minimum force is used here in the ethical sense of minimum harm. It is not in conflict with the Powell doctrine of overwhelming force. If overwhelming force in the military sense produces less harm then it can be seen as minimum force in the ethical sense used by Just War theorists. A civilian is a person who is not a member of a military. ... Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason). It also refers to the study of other religious topics. ... Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) generally include nuclear, biological, chemical and, increasingly, radiological weapons. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... The Iron Maiden of Nuremberg was a famous, but probably mythical, torture device Torture is the infliction of severe physical or psychological pain as an expression of cruelty, a means of intimidation, deterrent or punishment, or as a tool for the extraction of information or confessions. ... Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ... Albert Einstein, by Yousuf Karsh Albert Einsteins letter to President Roosevelt in 1939 about his concerns Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist of Swiss and American citizenship, who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) (Devanagari: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी, Gujarati મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી) was the national leader who brought the fight for Indias independence from British colonial rule to the highest moral standards, empowered by tens of millions of common Indians and ultimate success. ... Saint Ambrose, Latin Sanctus Ambrosius, Italian SantAmbrogio (circa 340–April 4, 397), bishop of Milan, was one of the most eminent fathers of the Christian church in the 4th century. ... General Colin Powell made famous the so-called Powell Doctrine as part of the run up to the 1990-1991 Gulf War. ...

Ending A War: Jus Post Bellum

In recent years, some theorists have proposed a third category within Just War theory. Jus post bellum concerns the regulation of the process of terminating war, and the transition from war to peace. One of the main proponents of jus post bellum is Brian Orend, who proposes the following rules:

• Just cause for termination - A state may terminate a war if there has been a reasonable vindication of the rights that were violated in the first place, and if the aggressor is willing to negotiate the terms of surrender. These terms of surrender include a formal apology, compensations, war crimes trials and perhaps rehabilitation.
• Right intention - A state must only terminate a war under the conditions agreed upon in the above criteria. Revenge is not permitted. The victor state must also be willing to apply the same level of objectivity and investigation into any war crimes its armed forces may have committed.
• Public declaration and authority - The terms of peace must be made by a legitimate authority, and the terms must be accepted by a legitimate authority.
• Discrimination - The victor state is to differentiate between political and military leaders, and combatants and civilians. Punitive measures are to be limited to those directly responsible for the conflict.
• Proportionality - Any terms of surrender must be proportional to the rights that were initially violated. Draconian measures, absolutionist crusades and any attempt at denying the surrended country the right to participate in the world community are not permitted.

Challenging Just War theory

There have been several theories that have challenged Just War theory. Also, some have noted the impracticality of Just War theory in real-war situations.

Alternative Theories

• Realism - The core proposition of realism is a skepticism as to whether moral concepts such as justice can be applied to the conduct of international affairs. Proponents of realism believe that moral concepts should never prescribe, nor circumscribe, a state's behaviour. Instead, a state should place an emphasis on state security and self-interest. One form of realism - descriptive realism - proposes that states cannot act morally, while another form - prescriptive realism - argues that the motivating factor for a state is self-interest.
• Pacifism - Pacifism is the belief that war of any kind is morally unjust. One argument pacifists have made against Just War theory is that Just War theory advocates the protection and sanctity of innocent lives, yet during war the lives of innocents cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, unless the lives of innocents can be guaranteed, war cannot be justified under any grounds.
• "Just" Wars that violate just wars principles. Many ideologies agree with the tradition that war should be fought only if done for a just cause but reject most if not all of the other criteria of the tradition. The Marxist tradition can be seen as part of this category. For Marixsts the only criteria is whether a war is "progressive" (ie just within their terms) and it is irrelevant how costly the war may be. Husayn bin Ali is celebrated for his pursuit of his "just" claim to the caliphate despite the fact his rebellion was doomed to failure. However Husayn's rebelion was an unjust war by the criteria of the just war tradition because it violated the principle that there must be a reasonable chance of success.

Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abu Talib (c. ...

Just War Theory and Real-War Situations

• While combatants are morally responsible for discriminating between enemy combatants and non-combatants, there are times when such discrimination is impossible. Tactics such as “assurance shots” or “double taps” – when soldiers fire into downed enemy combatants – to prevent any actions that may jeopardize their security violates the law of war . While soldiers, upon coming across an injured enemy combatant, are obliged to disarm the combatant, check their medical status and call for medical assistance, there are situations when doing so would place the soldiers in grave danger. There is also the danger of enemy combatants attacking soldiers, such as shooting them in the back.
• In modern warfare, proportionality as prescribed in jus in bello can be difficult to achieve, due to the tendency of placing military targets within civilian areas. Therefore, there are times when civilian casualties will occur. The critera of proportionality uses the concept double effect – that is, one may undertake military operations aimed at legitimate objectives or targets, despite the operation having foreseeable negative consequences, such as civilian casualties. The negative consequences must be proportionate to the military gain. Thinkers within the just war tradition would accept that there is a threshold beyond which the negative cosequences outweigh any other considerations even the danger of defeat. Theorists differ as to how strictly the Just War criteria should be interpreted on this point.

Just war theorists

• Cicero (106 BC–43 BC)
• Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
• St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
• Stanislaw of Skarbimierz (1360-1431)
• Francisco de Vitoria (1492-1546)
• Francisco Suarez (1548-1617)
• Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)
• Baron von Pufendorf (1632–1694)
• Emerich de Vattel (1714-1767)
• Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971)
• H. Richard Niebuhr (1894-1962)
• Paul Tillich (1886-1965)
• Paul Ramsey (1913-1988)
• Michael Walzer (1935- )

Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin prose stylist. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 111 BC 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC - 106 BC - 105 BC 104 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC... St. ... Events Gallus deposed, executed at Antioch. ... Events Saint Patrick reaches Ireland on his missionary expedition. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 - March 7, 1274) was a Catholic philosopher and theologian in the scholastic tradition, who gave birth to the Thomistic school of philosophy, which was long the primary philosophical approach of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Events Births Thomas Aquinas, Christian philosopher and theologian (d. ... Events May 7 - In France the Second Council of Lyons opens to consider the condition of the Holy Land and to agree to a union with the Byzantine church. ... Stanislaw of Skarbimierz (1360-1431) - from 1400 rector of Jagiellonian University in Cracow, Poland. ... Events Treaty of Brétigny King Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark seizes Scania (from 1658 a Swedish province). ... Events February 21 - The trial of Joan of Arc March 3 - Eugenius IV becomes Pope May 30 - In Rouen, France, 19-year old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake. ... Francisco de Vitoria (1492-1546) was a Renaissance theologian, founder of the tradition in philosophy known as the School of Salamanca, noted especially for his contributions to the theory of Just War. ... Events January 2 - Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrenders his city to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella after a lengthy siege. ... Events Spanish conquest of Yucatan Peace between England and France Foundation of Trinity College, Cambridge by Henry VIII of England Katharina von Bora flees to Magdeburg Science Architecture Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Events Mary I of Scotland sent to France Births September 2 - Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian architect (died 1616) September 29 - William V, Duke of Bavaria (died 1626) Francesco Andreini, Italian actor (died 1624) Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher, astronomer, and occultist (burned at the stake) 1600 (died 1600) Honda Tadakatsu, Japanese general... Events Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed I (1603-1617) to Mustafa I (1617-1623). ... Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius (Huig de Groot, or Hugo de Groot; 10th April 1583 - 28th August 1645) worked as a jurist in the Dutch Republic and laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. ... Events August 5 - Sir Humphrey Gilbert establishes first English colony in North America, at what is now St Johns, Newfoundland. ... // Events January 10 - Archbishop Laud executed on Tower Hill. ... Samuel Pufendorf (January 8, 1632 - October 26, 1694), was a German jurist. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... Events February 6 - The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed. ... Emerich de Vattel (April 25, 1714 - 1767) was a Swiss Philosopher, diplomat, and legal expert whose theories laid the foundation of modern international law and Political philosophy. ... // Events August 1 - George, elector of Hanover becomes King George I of Great Britain. ... 1767 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Reinhold Niebuhr (June 21, 1892- June 1, 1971) was a Protestant theologian best known for his study of the task of relating the Christian faith to the reality of modern politics and diplomacy. ... 1892 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1971 is a common year starting on Friday (click for link to calendar). ... Helmut Richard Niebuhr (1894-1962) was an American Christian ethicist best known for his 1951 book Christ and Culture and his 1960 book Radical Monotheism and Western Culture. ... 1894 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1962 was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... Paul Johannes Tillich (August 20, 1886 – October 22, 1965) was a German-American theologian and Christian existentialist philosopher. ... 1886 is a common year starting on Friday (click on link to calendar) // Events January 9 - The United States of America is 40,000 days old. ... 1965 was a common year starting on Friday (link goes to calendar). ... Paul Ramsey (December 10, 1913 - February 29, 1988) was a professor of religion and a scholar of ethics, applied ethics, bio-ethics, medical ethics, Just War Theory, and Christian Ethics. ... Link title1913 is a common year starting on Wednesday. ... 1988 is a leap year starting on a Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Michael Walzer lecturing at the U.S. Naval Academy Michael Walzer (13 March 1935 - ) is a philosopher of society, politics, and ethics currently working as a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. ... 1935 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

See also

• Geneva Conventions
• Jihad
• Holy war
• Mennonite
• Passages On War
• Realpolitik
• School of Salamanca
• scorched earth
• Summa Theologica
• total war
• war crime

Development of the Geneva Conventions from 1864 to 1949 The Geneva Conventions consist of four treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland that set the standards for international law for humanitarian concerns. ... Jihad (ǧihād جهاد) is an Islamic term, from the Arabic root ǧhd (to exert utmost effort, to strive, struggle), which connotes a wide range of meanings: anything from an inward spiritual struggle to attain perfect faith to a political or military struggle to further the Islamic cause. ... See also Jewish History Jihad Mujahideen Crusade Knights Templars Knights Hospitaliers Jedi ... The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations based on the teachings and tradition of Menno Simons. ... Realpolitik (German for politics of reality) is foreign politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics. ... The School of Salamanca is the renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical work of Francisco de Vitoria. ... Scorched earth is a military tactic which involves destroying anything that might be useful to the enemy whilst advancing through or withdrawing from an area. ... The Summa Theologica (also widely known as the Summa Theologiae) is the most famous work of St. ... A US poster produced during World War II Total war is a 20th century term to describe a war in which countries or nations use all of their resources to destroy another organized countrys or nations ability to engage in war. ... A war crime is a punishable offense, under international (criminal) law, for violations of the law of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ...

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations by or about:

Just War theory

• Theories of A Just War
• Resources on Just War Theory
• "Whether it is always sinful to wage war?", from the Summa Theologica
• "JustWarTheory.com", a free and non-profit internet teaching and research guide to just war theory.
• The just war doctine and its application in current international law
• Humanitarian Intervention and Just War
• Just War Theory - an overview
• Just War, As It Was and Is: J T Johnson

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikiquote is a sister project of Wikipedia, using the same MediaWiki software. ... The Summa Theologica (also widely known as the Summa Theologiae) is the most famous work of St. ...

Against:

• A New Way
• A Critique of the Just War Theory