NationMaster - Encyclopedia: The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three "ages": the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and Modern Times. The Middle Ages of Western Europe are commonly dated from the end of the Western Roman Empire (5th century) until the rise of national monarchies, the start of European overseas exploration, the humanist revival, and the Protestant Reformation starting in 1517. These various changes all mark the beginning of the Early Modern period that preceded the Industrial Revolution. This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (1300â€“1500 CE). ... Periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks. ... It has been suggested that Greco-Roman be merged into this article or section. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... Places where monarchies maintain rule appear in blue. ... The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships travelled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... Humanism is a broad category of active ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on our ability to determine what is right using the qualities innate to humanity, particularly rationality. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which emerged in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Catholic Church in Western Europe. ... Events January 22 - Battle of Ridanieh. ... The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies, between the Middle Ages and modern society. ... A Watt steam engine in Madrid. ...

The Middle Ages are commonly referred to as the medieval period or simply medieval (sometimes spelled "mediaeval" or, historically, "mediæval"). The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

The Early Middle Ages

As the political unity of the Roman Empire dwindled in Western Europe during and after the 3rd century (ref. Civilization of the Middle Ages; Norman F. Cantor), its territories were settled by succeeding waves of "barbarian" tribal confederations, some of whom rejected the classical culture of Rome, while others, like the Goths, admired it and considered themselves the legatees and heirs of Rome. Prominent among these peoples in the movement were the Huns and Avars and Magyars with the large number of Germanic and later Slavic peoples. It must be stressed that the institution of the eastern half of the old empire still continued to function, if not prosper. East Romans thought of themselves as the heirs to the Roman legacy in all ways, and they also thought their version of Christianity was more legitimate than that of the Catholic west. Constantinople was one of the two capitals of the later empire, and was able to avoid capture by the barbarian tribes. This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... For other senses of this name, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... A common understanding of Western Europe in modern times. ... // Greek origin of the term Barbarian comes the French barbarien or Medieval Latin barbarinus, from Latin barbaria, from Latin barbarus, from the ancient Greek word Î²Î¬ÏÎ²Î±ÏÎ¿Ï‚ (barbaros) which meant a non-Greek, someone whose (first) language was not Greek. ... Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche portrays the Goths as cavalrymen. ... The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes, most likely of diverse origin with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century, the most famous being Attila the Hun. ... The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia, supposedly of proto-Mongolian Turkic stock, who migrated from eastern Asia into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... Magyars are an ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. ... The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. ... Constantinople[1] was the name of the modern-day city of Ä°stanbul, Turkey over the centuries that it served as the second capital of the unified Roman Empire, and after its division into East and West, of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire (from the city...

The era of the migrations is referred to as the Migration Period. It has historically been termed the "Dark Ages" by Western European historians, and as Völkerwanderung ("wandering of the peoples") by German historians. The term "Dark Ages" has now fallen from favour, partly to avoid the entrenched stereotypes associated with the phrase, but also partly because more recent research into the period has in fact revealed a complex culture (including sophisticated artistry); no one at the time thought of themselves as living in a "Dark Age". It is true that the prevailing political structures were less centrally organized in comparison with the preceding culture, but the political unity of the Roman Empire has yet to be matched in Europe even to this day. Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... Petrarch, who conceived the idea of a European Dark Age. From Cycle of Famous Men and Women, Andrea di Bartolo di Bargillac, c. ... The German term VÃ¶lkerwanderung (the migration of peoples), is used in historiography as an alternate label for the Migration Period, of Germanic, Slavic and other tribes on the European continent during the period AD 300â€“900. ...

The settled Roman populations were not killed off (greatly varying depending on place and time), the migrating populations altered established society, and with it, law, culture and religion, and patterns of property ownership. The Pax Romana, with its accompanying benefits of safe conditions for trade and manufacture, and a unified cultural and educational milieu of far-ranging connections, had already been in decline for some time as the 5th century drew to a close. Now it was largely lost, to be replaced by the rule of local potentates, and the gradual change in economic and social linkages and infrastructure. Roman landowners for example could not just pack up their land and move elsewhere, so they quickly changed their allegiances to the new local customs and kings, dropped the former pretenses of Roman citizenship and established new modes of dress, language and custom so that within a generation or two it would have been difficult to distinguish between a Roman and a barbarian. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2848x2136, 490 KB) Description: Hildesheim, St Michaels Church (Hildesheim) Photographer: Longbow4u, photo taken myself, 20. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2848x2136, 490 KB) Description: Hildesheim, St Michaels Church (Hildesheim) Photographer: Longbow4u, photo taken myself, 20. ... Romanesque St. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, Î±ÏÏ‡Î¹Ï„ÎµÎºÏ„Ï‰Î½, a master builder, from Î±ÏÏ‡Î¹- chief, leader and Ï„ÎµÎºÏ„Ï‰Î½, builder, carpenter) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. ... â–¶ (helpÂ· info) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. ... Pax Romana (27 BC-180 AD), Latin for the Roman peace, is the long period of relative peace experienced by states within the Roman Empire. ...

This breakdown was often fast and dramatic as it became unsafe to travel or carry goods over any distance and there was a collapse in trade and manufacture for export. Major industries that depended on trade, such as large-scale pottery manufacture, vanished almost overnight in places like Britain. The Islamic invasions of the 7th and 8th centuries, which conquered the Levant, North Africa, Spain, Portugal and some of the Mediterranean islands (including Sicily), increased localization by halting much of what remained of seaborne commerce. Thus, whereas sites like Tintagel in Cornwall had managed to obtain supplies of Mediterranean luxury goods well into the 6th century, this connection was now lost. The administrative, educational and military infrastructure of the Roman Empire quickly vanished, leading, among other things, to decreased literacy among the upper tiers (the majority of Rome's population were always illiterate) and the reduced governmental sophistication mentioned above. // Overview Events The Roman-Persian Wars end. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... The Levant Levant is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... Sicilian redirects here. ... Situated on the north Atlantic coast of Cornwall, the village of Tintagel (pronounced with the stress on the second syllable; Cornish: Dintagell) and nearby Tintagel Castle are associated with the legends surrounding King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. ... Cornwall (Cornish: Kernow) is a county at the extreme South-West of England on the peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar. ...

A new order

Until recently it has been common to speak of "barbarian invasions" sweeping in from beyond Imperial borders and bringing about the end of the Roman Empire. Modern historians now acknowledge that this presents an incomplete portrait of a complex time of migration. In some important cases, such as that of the Franks entering Gaul, settlement of the newcomers took place over many decades, as groups seeking new economic opportunities crossed into Roman territory, retaining their own tribal leadership, and acculturating to, or displacing the Gallo-Roman society, often without widespread violence. Other outsiders, like Theodoric of the Ostrogoths, were civilized, though illiterate patrons, who saw themselves successors to the Roman tradition, employing cultured Roman ministers, like Cassiodorus. Like the Goths, many of the outsiders were foederati, military allies of the Empire, who had earned rights of settlement, including among others the Franks and the Burgundians. Between the 5th and 8th centuries a completely new political and social infrastructure developed across the lands of the former empire, based upon powerful regional noble families, and the newly established kingdoms of the Ostrogoths in Italy, Visigoths in Spain and Portugal, Franks and Burgundians in Gaul and western Germany, and Saxons in England. These lands remained Christian, and their Arian conquerors were soon converted, following the example of the pagan Frank Clovis I. The interaction between the culture of the newcomers, the remnants of classical culture, and Christian influences, produced a new model for society. The centralized administrative systems of the Romans did not withstand the changes for lack of a tax base, and the institutional support for large scale chattel slavery largely disappeared. // Greek origin of the term Barbarian comes the French barbarien or Medieval Latin barbarinus, from Latin barbaria, from Latin barbarus, from the ancient Greek word Î²Î¬ÏÎ²Î±ÏÎ¿Ï‚ (barbaros) which meant a non-Greek, someone whose (first) language was not Greek. ... Human migration denotes any movement by humans from one locality to another, often over long distances or in large groups. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) was the region of Western Europe occupied by present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Theodoric was a first name frequently encountered in medieval European history. ... This article deals with the continental Ostrogoths. ... Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (ca 484/490 - ca585), commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and writer, serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. ... Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche portrays the Goths as cavalrymen. ... Foederatus early in the history of the Roman Republic identified one of the tribes bound by treaty (foedus), who were neither Roman colonies nor had they been granted Roman citizenship (civitas) but were expected to provide a contingent of fighting men when trouble arose. ... The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... This article deals with the continental Ostrogoths. ... The Visigoths, originally Tervingi, or Vesi (the noble ones), one of the two main branches of the Goths (of which the Ostrogothi were the other), were one of the loosely-termed Germanic peoples that disturbed the late Roman Empire. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC Gaul (Latin Gallia, Greek Galatia) was the region of Western Europe occupied by present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... The Saxons or Saxon people are part of the German people with its main areas of settlements in the German Federal States of Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and the northern part of North-Rhine-Westphalia. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area â€“ Total Ranked... This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Non-contemporary coin with obverse legend Clovis Roy de France Clovis I (or Chlodowech or Chlodwig, modern French Louis, modern German Ludwig) (c. ...

However beyond these areas of Europe were many people with little or no contact with Christianity or with classic Roman culture. Martial societies such as the Avars and the Vikings were still capable of causing major disruption to the newly emerging societies of Western Europe. The Christian Church, the only centralized institution to survive the fall of the western Roman Empire intact, was the major unifying cultural influence, preserving its selection from Latin learning, maintaining the art of writing, and a centralized administration through its network of bishops. The Early Middle Ages are characterized by the urban control of bishops and the territorial control exercised by dukes and counts. The rise of urban communes marked the beginning of the High Middle Ages. The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia, supposedly of proto-Mongolian Turkic stock, who migrated from eastern Asia into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... The name Viking is a loan from the native Scandinavian term for the Norse seafaring warriors who raided the coasts of Scandinavia, Europe and the British Isles from the late 8th century to the 11th century, the period of European history referred to as the Viking Age. ... The Roman Empire is not the Holy Roman Empire (843-1806). ... A bishop is an ordained member of the Christian clergy who, in certain Christian churches, holds a position of authority. ...

Outside the de-urbanized remains of cities, the power of central government was greatly reduced. Consequently government authority, and responsibility for military organization, taxation and law and order, was delegated to provincial and local lords, who supported themselves directly from the proceeds of the territories over which they held military, political and judicial power. In this was the beginnings of the feudal system. The High Middle Ages would see the regrowth of centralized power, and the growth of new "national" identities, as strong rulers sought to eliminate competition (and potential threat to their rule) from powerful feudal nobles. Well known examples of such consolidation include the Albigensian Crusade and the Wars of the Roses. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1200x600, 41 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1200x600, 41 KB) Licensing File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Feudalism comes from the Late Latin word feudum, itself borrowed from a Germanic root *fehu, a commonly used term in the Middle Ages which means fief, or land held under certain obligations by feodati. ... The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209 - 1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the religion practiced by the Cathars of Languedoc, which the Roman Catholic hierarchy considered apostasy. ... Lancaster York For other uses see Wars of the Roses (disambiguation) The Wars of the Roses (1455â€“1485) is the name generally given to the intermittent civil war fought over the throne of England between adherents of the House of Lancaster and the House of York. ...

This hierarchy of reciprocal obligations, known as feudalism or the feudal system, binding each man to serve his superior in return for the latter's protection, made for a confusion of territorial sovereignty (since allegiances were subject to change over time, and were sometimes mutually contradictory). The benefit of feudalism however, was its resiliency, and the ability of local arrangements to provide stable government in the absence of a strong royal power in a political order distinguished by its lack of uniformity. Territoriality was reduced to a network of personal allegiances. Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ...

In the east, the Eastern Roman Empire (called by historians the "Byzantine Empire"), maintained a form of Christianised Roman rule in the lands of Asia Minor, Greece and the Slavic territories bordering Greece, and in Sicily and southern Italy. The eastern emperors had maintained a nominal claim to rule over the west, reconquered by Belisarius, but this East Roman claim was a political fiction under Lombard rule and became strongly disputed from 800. Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Byzantine Empire (Greek: Î’Î±ÏƒÎ¹Î»ÎµÎ¯Î± Î¡Ï‰Î¼Î±Î¯Ï‰Î½) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ... Sicilian redirects here. ... Belisar as a beggar, as depicted in popular legend, in the painting by Jacques-Louis David (1781). ... Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Events December 25, Rome, coronation of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as emperor by Pope Leo III. Celtic monks begin work on the Book of Kells on the Island of Iona. ...

The Rise of the Franks, and the Islamic Invasions of Europe

Two dynamics combined to change Europe forever: the rise of Islam in the East, which led to the Islamic conquest of Iberia and invasions of Europe, and the rise of the Franks as the first real Imperial power in the West since Rome, and their halting the tide of Islamic expansion under the rule of Charles Martel. The rise of Islam also began the long, slow, slide into extinction of the Eastern Roman Empire, which though it would linger for another seven centuries, and even achieve renewed glory, (though never the empire it had before Muhammad), Islam's coming had the unexpected result of shifting christian power decisively to the west.

In the west, the first beginning of a new order arose with the Carolingians, who began as Mayors of the Palace for the Frankish Kings. At their onset, these were merely romanized Germanic barbarians, civilized to some degree by christianity and a gradual evolution into a central govenment controlled by the Carolingian nobility, which actually ruled the Franks. This system came both to it's height, and it's end, during the reign of Charles Martel. At the beginning of Charles Martel's career, in 716, he had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Clotaire IV, to the by then in-name only Kingship of the Franks. By his end, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, no hallowed Meroving was needed, neither for defence nor legitimacy: Charles divided his realm between his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son Bernard). In between, he strengthened the Frankish state by consistently defeating, through superior generalship, the host of hostile foreign nations which beset it on all sides, including the heathen Saxons, which his grandson Charlemagne would fully subdue, and Moors, which he halted on a path of continental domination.

Charles was that rarest of commodities in the Dark Ages: a brilliant stategic general, who also was a tactical commander par excellance, able in the crush and heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foes forces and movement — and amazingly, defeated them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of brave fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foes superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, cooly shifting to compensate for the unforeseen and unforeseeable.

He was also a skilled administrator and ruler, organizing what would become the medieval european government - a system of fiefdoms, loyal to barons, counts, dukes and ultimately the King, or in his case, simply maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum. ("First or Dominant Mayor and Prince of the Franks") His close coordination of church with state also began the medieval pattern for such government. He created the first western standing army since the fall of Rome. In essence, he changed Europe from a horde of barbarians fighting with one another, to an organized state. He also halted Islamic expansion into Europe, and his crucial defeats of Muslim invading armies at Tours, Arles, and River Berre, stopped the Islamic tide while the Caliphate was still united, and set the stage for his son Pippin the Short to assume the Frankish Throne in what was already the basic Carolingian Empire, and his grandson to assume the title of the first Western Roman Emperor since Rome's fall, three centuries before.

West Roman Empire of Charlemagne (Post-800)

Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800; his rule briefly united much of modern day France, western Germany and northern Italy. For 200 years after Charlemagne's death, Europe was in conflict, with east and west competing for power and influence in the partly un-christianized expanses of far northern Europe, and power devolving to more localized authorities. Charlemagne (742 or 747 â€“ 28 January 814) (also Charles the Great[1]; from Latin, Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus), son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, was the king of the Franks from 768 to 814 and king of the Lombards from 774 to 814. ... The historical phenomenon of Christianization, the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once (a political shift as much as a spontaneous mass shift in individual consciences), also includes the practice of converting pagan cult practices, pagan religious imagery, pagan sites and the pagan calendar...

The spread of Christianity in the Migrations Period, both from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland, occasioned a pre-eminent cultural and ideological role for its abbots, and the collapse of a res publica meant that the bishops became identified with the remains of urban government. Christianity provided the basis for a first European "identity," Christendom, unified until the separation of Orthodox Churches from the Catholic Church in the Great Schism of 1054, one of the dates that marks the onset of the High Middle Ages. According to Christians, Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, known by Christians as Jesus Christ, as recounted in the New Testament. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Abbots coat of arms The word abbot, meaning father, has been used as a Christian clerical title in various, mainly monastic, meanings. ... Res publica is a Latin phrase, made of res + publica, literally meaning public thing. It is the origin of the word Republic. // Etymology The word publica is the feminine singular of the 1st and 2nd declension adjective publicus, publica, publicum, which is itself derived from an earlier form, poplicusâ€”relating... This medieval map, which abstracts the known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. ... ... The name Catholic Church can mean a visible organization that refers to itself as Catholic, or the invisible Christian Church, viz. ... Great Schism redirects here. ... Events Cardinal Humbertus, a representative of Pope Leo IX, and Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, decree each others excommunication. ...

A Carolingian Renaissance

During Charlemagne's lifetime, however, as well as that of his son, Louis the Pious, the Frankish-ruled Holy Roman Empire experienced a flourishing of intellectual and cultural revival. During this period there was an increase of literature, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical and scriptural studies. The period also saw the development of Medieval Latin and Carolingian minuscule, providing a common language and writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. Sample of Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of the Carolingian Renaissance. ... Louis the Pious, contemporary depiction from 826 as a miles Christi (soldier of Christ), with a poem of Rabanus Maurus overlaid. ...

Charlemagne (742 or 747 â€“ 28 January 814) (also Charles the Great[1]; from Latin, Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus), son of King Pippin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, was the king of the Franks from 768 to 814 and king of the Lombards from 774 to 814. ... Louis the Pious, contemporary depiction from 826 as a miles Christi (soldier of Christ), with a poem of Rabanus Maurus overlaid. ... Emperor Otto I Otto I the Great (November 23, 912 - May 7, 973), son of Henry I the Fowler, king of the Germans, and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke of Saxony, King of the Germans and arguably the first Holy Roman Emperor. ...

The High Middle Ages

From beginnings roughly about the year 1000, greater stability came to the lands of western Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol incursions, major barbarian invasions had ceased. The advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic northeast brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples to the European entity. The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... // Events World Population 300 million. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... The Baltic Sea The Baltic region (sometimes briefly The Baltics) is an ambiguous term used to denominate an arbitrary region connected to the Baltic Sea (also called The Baltics). ... Finnic peoples (Fennic, sometimes Baltic-Finnic) refers to a group of related ethnic groups, viz. ...

The "High Middle Ages" describes the expansionist culture and intellectual revival from the late 11th century to the beginning of the 14th. The High Middle Ages saw an explosion in population. In central and northern Italy and in Flanders the rise of towns that were self-governing to some degree within their territories marked a beginning for re-urbanization in Western Europe. Medieval demography is demography in the Middle Ages. ...

In Spain and Portugal, a slow reconquest of the urbane and literate Muslim-ruled territories began. One consequence of this was that the Latin-literate world gained access to libraries that included classical literature and philosophy. Through translations these libraries gave rise to a vogue for the philosophy of Aristotle. Meanwhile, trade grew throughout Europe as the dangers of travel were reduced, and steady economic growth resumed. This period saw the formation of the Hanseatic league and other trading and banking institutions that operated across western Europe. The first universities were established in major European cities from 1080 onwards, bringing in a new interest and inquisitiveness about the world. Literacy began to grow, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture. Large cathedrals were built across Europe, first in the romanesque, and later in the more decorative gothic style. Aristotle (Ancient Greek: AristotÃ©lÄ“s 384â€“March 7 322 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... Carta marina of Baltic Sea (1539). ... This article is about European institutions. ... Events William I of England, in a letter, reminds the Bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance. ... Venus de Milo exhibited in the Louvre museum, France. ... An Italian Futurist sculpture by Umberto Boccioni at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City (MoMA). ... Music is conceptual time expressed in the structures of tones and silence. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, Î±ÏÏ‡Î¹Ï„ÎµÎºÏ„Ï‰Î½, a master builder, from Î±ÏÏ‡Î¹- chief, leader and Ï„ÎµÎºÏ„Ï‰Î½, builder, carpenter) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. ... A cathedral is a Christian church building, specifically of a denomination with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Anglican, Catholic and some Lutheran churches, which serves as the central church of a diocese, and thus as a bishops seat. ... Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one, leading to various perspectives about Europes borders. ... Romanesque St. ... See also Gothic art. ...

The Crusades

Following the Great Schism, prime examples of the force of the divided cultural identities of Christendom can be found in the unfolding developments of the Crusades, during which popes, kings, and emperors drew on the concept of Christian unity to inspire the population of Western Europe to unite to fight against Islam. From the 7th century onward, Islam had been gaining ground along Europe's southern and eastern borders. Muslim armies conquered Egypt, the rest of North Africa, Jerusalem, Spain, Sicily, and most of Anatolia (in modern Turkey), although they were finally turned back in western Europe by Christian armies at the Battle of Tours in southern France. Political unanimity in Europe was less secure than it appeared, however, and the military support for most crusades was drawn from limited regions of Europe. Substantial areas of northern Europe also remained outside Christendom until the twelfth century or later; these areas also became crusading venues during the expansionist High Middle Ages. This article is about the medieval crusades. ... The term Great Schism refers to either of two splits in the history of Christianity: Most commonly, it refers to the great East-West Schism, the event that separated Eastern Orthodoxy and Western Roman Catholicism in the eleventh century (1054). ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ... The Pope (from Greek: pappas, father; from Latin: papa, Papa, father) is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the Quran. ... // Overview Events The Roman-Persian Wars end. ... Northern Africa (UN subregion) geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent. ... Jerusalem (; Hebrew: Yerushalayim; Arabic: al-Quds, Greek Î™ÎµÏÎ¿ÏƒÏŒÎ»Ï…Î¼Î±), the capital of Israel, is an ancient Middle Eastern city on the watershed between the Mediterranean Sea and the Dead Sea at an elevation of 650-840 meters. ... Sicilian redirects here. ... Asia Minor lies east of the Bosporus, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. ... Combatants Franks Umayyad Caliphate Commanders Charles Martel Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd er Rahmanâ€ Strength 15,000-75,000 60,000-200,000 Casualties about 1500 reported in western history, but probably heavier; unknown, but reported massive, notably Emir Abd er Rahman 1. ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... The Teutonic knights in Pskov in 1240. ...

Technology

During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. The period saw major technological advances, including the invention of cannons, spectacles and artesian wells; and the cross-cultural introduction of gunpowder, silk, compass and astrolabe from the east. There were also great improvements with ships and upon the clock. The latter advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Exploration. During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... For other uses, see Cannon (disambiguation). ... Glasses, spectacles, or eyeglasses are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the eyes, sometimes for purely aesthetic reasons but normally for vision correction or eye protection. ... Geological strata giving rise to an Artesian well An artesian aquifer is an aquifer whose water is overpressurized. ... Smokeless powder Gunpowder, whether black powder or smokeless powder, is a substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms. ... Silk weaver Silk is a natural protein fiber that can be woven into textiles. ... Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ... A 16th century astrolabe. ... Italian ship-rigged vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976 A ship is a large, sea-going watercraft, sometimes with multiple decks. ... A wall clock A clock (from the Latin cloca, bell) is an instrument for measuring time. ... The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ...

The Late Middle Ages (circa 1300-1500)

The 14th century witnessed an economic decline that began with the first retrenchment after the long, gently inflationary rise of a unified economy that had been under way since the 11th century. The European climate itself was worsening, after the long Medieval Warm Period, leading to the onset of the Little Ice Age. In the Black Death, large areas of Western Europe lost around a third—in some places as much as half—of their population to disease, especially in the crowded conditions of the towns. Economic historians like Fernand Braudel have concluded that Black Death began during a recession in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century, and only served to worsen it. As a consequence, it greatly accelerated social and economic change during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In Western Europe, the sudden scarcity of cheap labour provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of capitalism, and the resulting social upheaval caused the Renaissance and even Reformation. Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (1300â€“1500 CE). ... World inflation rate, based on CIA factbook figures In economics, inflation is simply an increase in the money supply. ... The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) or Medieval Climate Optimum was an unusually warm period during the European Medieval period, lasting from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. ... The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of cooling lasting approximately from the 14th to the mid-19th centuries, although there is no generally agreed start or end date: some confine the period to 1550-1850. ... Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411). ... Fernand Braudel Fernand Braudel (August 24, 1902â€“November 27, 1985) was a French historian. ... Capitalism has been defined in various, but similar, ways by different theorists. ... In the traditional view, the Renaissance is understood as an historical age that was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ...

Politically, the later Middle Ages were typified by the decline of feudal power replaced by the development of strong, royalty-based nation-states. This consolidation did not decrease the frequency of war, the Late Middle Ages seeing such protracted conflicts as the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Participation in these wars weakened the eastern Christian nations in their confrontations with an increasing expanding Islamic world. Indeed, throughout this period the Byzantine Empire was in decline, having peaked in influence during the Early Middle Ages. After the Battle of Manzikert (1071), the former empire was reduced to a shell; it survived in a diminished and weakened form until 1453, and ceased to exist by the end of the Late Medieval period. The term nation-state, while often used interchangeably with the terms unitary state and independent state, refers properly to the parallel occurence of a state and a nation. ... A map of Europe in the 1430s, near the end of the Hundred Years War The Hundred Years War is the name modern historians have given to what was actually a series of related conflicts, fought over a 116-year period, between England and France, and later Burgundy; beginning in... Islam (Arabic: ; ) is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the Quran. ... Byzantine Empire (Greek: Î’Î±ÏƒÎ¹Î»ÎµÎ¯Î± Î¡Ï‰Î¼Î±Î¯Ï‰Î½) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... The Battle of Manzikert, or The Battle of Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuk forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26, 1071 near Manzikert, Armenia (modern Malazgirt, Turkey). ... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ...

Christendom was increasingly divided in this period, notably during the 14th century. This troubled century saw both the Avignon Papacy of 1305-1378, also called the Babylonian Captivity, and the so-called Western Schism that lasted from 1378-1418. These divides resulted in greater loyalty to regional or national churches, and though lay piety rarely wavered, secular solutions, rather than religious ones, were increasingly sought for the social problems of the time. The Lutherans' split with the Roman Catholic Church in 1517, and the subsequent division between Catholicism and Protestantism, is one more event in the changes around 1500 that signaled the end of the old order. The Papal palace in Avignon In the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the Avignon Papacy was the period from 1305 to 1378 during which the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, lived in Avignon (now a part of France) rather than in Rome. ... Historical map of the Western Schism The Western Schism or Papal Schism (Also known as the Great Schism of Western Christianity) was a split within the Catholic Church in 1378. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Catholicism. ...

Throughout the Late Middle Ages, stresses such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, the Black Death of 1348, and popular uprisings, particularly in the west, encouraged creative social, economic, and technological responses that signaled the end of the old medieval order and laid the groundwork for further great changes in the Early Modern Period. The Great Famine of 1315-1317 (or to 1322) was the first of a series of large-scale crises that struck Europe early in the 14th century, causing millions of deaths over an extended number of years and marking a clear end to an earlier period of growth and prosperity... Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411). ... Events April 7 - Charles University is founded in Prague. ... Popular revolts in late medieval Europe were uprisings and rebellions by (typically) peasants in the countryside, or the bourgeois in towns, against nobles and kings during the upheavals of the 14th through early 16th centuries. ...

Europe in 1328 Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1075x1168, 47 KB) States, territories, regimes etc. ... Events Augustiner brew Munich May 1 - Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton - England recognises Scotland as an independent nation after the Wars of Scottish Independence May 12 - Nicholas V is consecrated at St Peters Basilica in Rome by the bishop of Venice. ...

Europe in the 1430s Download high resolution version (600x650, 44 KB) Map created by Lynn H. Nelson, medieval and world history professor at the University of Kansas. ... Events and Trends A map of Europe in the 1430s. ...

Europe in the 1470s Download high resolution version (600x650, 46 KB) THis image outline the political boundaries of Europe in the year 1470 File links The following pages link to this file: Middle Ages 1470s 1470 ... Events and Trends battle of Avenches 1476 Prominent Persons Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer and mathematician A map of Europe in the 1470s. ...

Historiography

Middle Ages in history

After the Middle Ages ended subsequent generations imagined, portrayed and interpreted the Middle Ages in different ways. Every century has created its own vision of the Middle Ages; the 18th century view of the Middle Ages was entirely different from the 19th century which was different from the 16th century view. The reality of these images remains with us today in the form of film, architecture, literature, art and popular conception. The Middle Ages in history is an overview of how previous periods have portrayed the Middle Ages. ...

Medieval and Middle Ages

"Middle Age"

The term "Middle Age" ("medium ævum") was first coined by Flavio Biondo, an Italian humanist, in the early 15th Century. Until the Renaissance (and some time after) the standard scheme of history was to divide history into six ages, inspired by the biblical six days of creation, or four monarchies based on Daniel 2:40. The early Renaissance historians instead talked about two periods in history, that of Ancient times and that of the period referred to as the "Dark Age". In the early 15th Century it was believed history had evolved from the Dark Age to a Modern period and scholars began to write about a middle period between the Ancient and Modern, which became known as the Middle Age. This is known as the three period view of history. Flavio Biondo (Latin Flavius Blondus) (1392 â€“ June 4, 1463) was an Italian Renaissance humanist historian. ... Humanism is a system of thought that defines a socio-political doctrine (-ism) whose bounds exceed those of locally developed cultures, to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. ... In the traditional view, the Renaissance is understood as an historical age that was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation. ... From the Winchester Bible, showing the seven ages within the opening letter I of the book of Genesis. ... In the traditional view, the Renaissance is understood as an historical age that was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation. ... The Dark Ages (or Dark Age) is a metaphor with multiple meanings and connotations. ... The Dark Ages (or Dark Age) is a metaphor with multiple meanings and connotations. ...

The plural form of the term, Middle Ages, is used in English, Dutch, Russian and Icelandic while other European languages use the singular form (French le moyen âge, German das Mittelalter). This difference originates in different Neo-Latin terms used for the Middle Ages before media aetas became the standard term. Some were singular (media aetas, media antiquitas, medium saeculum and media tempestas), others plural (media saecula and media tempora). There seem to be no simple reason why a particular language ended up with the singular or the plural form. Further information can be found in Fred C. Robinson: "Medieval, the Middle Ages" in Speculum, Vol. 59:4 (Oct. 1984), p. 745-56. The term "medieval" (traditionally spelled "mediaeval") was first contracted from the Latin medium ævum, or more precisely "middle epoch", by Enlightenment thinkers as a pejorative descriptor of the Middle Ages. The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Most of the many indigenous languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family. ...

The common subdivision into Early, High and Late Middle Ages came into use after World War I. It was caused by the works of Henri Pirenne (in particular the article "Les periodes de l'historie du capitalism" in Academie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres, 1914) and Johan Huizinga (The Autumn of the Middle Ages, 1919). This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... Dante by Michelino The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (1300â€“1500 CE). ... Henri Pirenne (December 23, 1862, Verviers - October 25, 1935, Uccle) was a leading Belgian historian. ... Johan Huizinga (b. ... The Autumn of the Middle Ages, or The Waning of the Middle Ages, (published in 1919 as Herfsttij der Middeleeuwen and translated into English in 1924) is the best-known work by the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga. ...

A medieval era can also be applied to other parts of the world that historians have seen as embodying the same feudal characteristics as Europe in this period. The pre-westernization period in the history of Japan is sometimes referred to as medieval. The pre-colonial period in the developed parts of sub-Saharan Africa is also sometimes termed medieval. Today historians are far more reluctant to try to fit the history of other regions to the European model and these terms are less often used. Feudalism comes from the Late Latin word feudum, itself borrowed from a Germanic root *fehu, a commonly used term in the Middle Ages which means fief, or land held under certain obligations by feodati. ... The written history of Japan began with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century A.D., but abundant archaeological evidence demonstrates that people were living on the islands, which were actually adjoined to the mainland until about 13,000 years ago, as early as the upper paleolithic... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Periodization issues

It is difficult to decide when the Middle Ages ended, and in fact scholars assign different dates in different parts of Europe. Most scholars who work in 15th century Italian history, for instance, consider themselves Renaissance or Early Modern historians, while anyone working on England in the early 15th century is considered a medievalist. Others choose specific events, such as the Turkish capture of Constantinople or the end of the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War (both 1453), the invention of printing by Johann Gutenberg (around 1455) or the fall of Muslim Spain or Columbus's voyage to America (both 1492), or the Protestant Reformation starting 1517 to mark the period's end. In England the change of monarchs which occurred on 22 August 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth is often considered to mark the end of the period, Richard III representing the old medieval world and the Tudors, a new royal house and a new historical period. Periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks. ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... In the traditional view, the Renaissance is understood as an historical age that was preceded by the Middle Ages and followed by the Reformation. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area â€“ Total Ranked... Constantinople[1] was the name of the modern-day city of Ä°stanbul, Turkey over the centuries that it served as the second capital of the unified Roman Empire, and after its division into East and West, of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire (from the city... A map of Europe in the 1430s, near the end of the Hundred Years War The Hundred Years War is the name modern historians have given to what was actually a series of related conflicts, fought over a 116-year period, between England and France, and later Burgundy; beginning in... Events May 29 - Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). ... Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (c. ... ... no changes . ... Christopher Columbus (ca. ... The Americas (sometimes referred to as America) is the area including the land mass located between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, generally divided into North America and South America. ... 1492 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which emerged in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Catholic Church in Western Europe. ... Events January 22 - Battle of Ridanieh. ... August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... // Events August 5-7 - First outbreak of sweating sickness in England begins August 22 - Battle of Bosworth Field is fought between the armies of King Richard III of England and rival claimant to the throne of England Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. ... The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England. ... Richard III (2 October 1452 â€“ 22 August 1485) was King of England from 1483 until his death and the last king from the House of York. ... The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor (Welsh: Tudur) is a series of five monarchs of Welsh origin who ruled England and Ireland from 1485 until 1603. ...

Similar differences are now emerging in connection with the start of the period. Traditionally, the Middle Ages is said to begin when the West Roman Empire formally ceased to exist in 476. However, that date is not important in itself, since the West Roman Empire had been very weak for some time, while Roman culture was to survive at least in Italy for yet a few decades or more. Today, some date the beginning of the Middle Ages to the division and Christianization of the Roman Empire (4th century) while others, like Henri Pirenne see the period to the rise of Islam (7th century) as "late Classical". Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... St Francis Xavier converting the Paravas: a 19th-century image of the docile heathen Ansgar, the 9th century apostle of the North in an 1830 drawing. ... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ... Henri Pirenne (December 23, 1862, Verviers - October 25, 1935, Uccle) was a leading Belgian historian. ... // Overview Events The Roman-Persian Wars end. ...

The Middle Ages are often subdivided into an early period (sometimes called the "Dark Ages", at least from the fifth to eighth centuries) of shifting polities, a relatively low level of economic activity and successful incursions by non-Christian peoples (Slavs, Arabs, Scandinavians, Magyars); a middle period (the High Middle Ages) of developed institutions of lordship and vassalage, castle-building and mounted warfare, and reviving urban and commercial life; and a later period of growing royal power, the rise of commercial interests and weakening customary ties of dependence, especially after the 14th-century plague. Petrarch, who conceived the idea of a European Dark Age. From Cycle of Famous Men and Women, Andrea di Bartolo di Bargillac, c. ... // Overview Events Romulus Augustus, Last Western Roman Emperor 410: Rome sacked by Visigoths 452: Pope Leo I allegedly meets personally with Attila the Hun and convinces him not to sack Rome 439: Vandals conquer Carthage At some point after 440, the Anglo-Saxons settle in Britain. ... (7th century — 8th century — 9th century — other centuries) Events The Iberian peninsula is taken by Arab and Berber Muslims, thus ending the Visigothic rule, and starting almost 8 centuries of Muslim presence there. ... The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... Scandinavia is a region in Northern Europe named after the Scandinavian Peninsula. ... Magyars are an ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. ... The cathedral Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the High Middle Ages. ... A vassal or liege, in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of medieval Europe, is one who enters into mutual obligations with a lord, usually of military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain guarantees, which came to include the terrain held as a fief. ... The main gatehouse of Harlech Castle, Wales. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ...

Religion in the Middle Ages

The Holy Roman Empire and from the 16th century on also The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was a political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ... A pilgrimage is a term primarily used in religion and spirituality of a long journey or search of great moral significance. ... The Pope is the Catholic Bishop and patriarch of Rome, and head of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches. ... Pedro Berruguete. ... Heresy, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is a theological or religious opinion or doctrine maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the Catholic or Orthodox doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. ... This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Cathars being expelled from Carcassonne in 1209. ... Wycliffe may also refer to Wycliffe Bible Translators John Wyclif (also Wycliffe or Wycliff) (c. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Religious order. ... A Benedictine is a person who follows the Rule of St Benedict. ... A Carthusian Monastery in Jerez, Spain The Carthusian Order, also called the Order of St. ... Cistercians coat of arms The Order of Cistercians (OCist) (Latin Cistercenses), otherwise Gimey or White Monks (from the colour of the habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron) are a Catholic order of monks. ... The Mendicant (or Begging) Orders are religious orders which depend directly on the riches of the people for their livelihood. ... The Order of Friars Minor and other Franciscan movements are disciples of Saint Francis of Assisi. ... Origin and early history Carmelites (in Latin Ordo fratrum Beatæ Virginis Mariæ de monte Carmelo) is the name of a Roman Catholic order founded in the 12th century by a certain Berthold (d. ... The Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo (died AD 430), are several Roman Catholic monastic orders and congregations of both men and women living according to a guide to religious life known as the Rule of Saint Augustine. ... Jewish history is the history of the Jewish people, faith (Judaism) and culture. ... Copyrighted Image Photo courtesy of Wayne B. Chandler Moorish Ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I The Moors were the medieval Muslim inhabitants of al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula including the present day Spain and Portugal) and the Maghreb and western Africa, whose culture is often called Moorish. ... The Sultanate of Rûm was a Seljuk sultanate in Anatolia from 1077 to 1307. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) Ø¯ÙˆÙ„Øª Ø§Ø¨Ø¯ Ù…Ø¯Øª Devlet-i Ebed-mÃ¼ddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital SÃ¶ÄŸÃ¼t (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Ä°stanbul (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanl...

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