To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The poor French rural areas had grown fast, spilling population into the cities. ... // Observations of liberals As 1848 began, liberals in France awaited the death of King Louis Philippe, expecting a new revolution after his death. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... // The Italian states in 1848 As with Germany, there was no Italy at the time of the Revolutions of 1848, but a hodge-podge of states. ... Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 (Polish: powstanie wielkopolskie 1848 roku) was a military insurrection of the Polish people in the Grand Duchy of Poznań (or the Greater Poland region) against the occupying Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period. ... Pierre Joseph Proudhon, after the failures of 1848, quoted in The Age of Revolution and Reaction, Ten years after the Revolutions of 1848, little had visibly changed, and many historians consider the revolutions a bloody failure. ...

Preliminaries

"Germany" at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 was a collection of over 30 states loosely bound together in the German Confederation after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government/anarchy, and possessing internal and external and even in your pantssovereignty. ... The German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund) was a loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been abolished in 1806. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Battle of New Orleans 1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

Liberal pressure spread throughout the German states, each of which experienced the revolutions in their own way. Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, many kings capitulated to the revolutionaries -- for a while. The revolution began in France at the end of February and soon spread to Germany. In the south and the west of Germany, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They primarily demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, arming of the people, and a national German parliament. Louis-Philippe of France (October 6, 1773–August 26, 1850) reigned as the Orléanist king of the French from 1830 to 1848. ...

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The Revolutions in Prussia

The revolution started in Prussia with the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, which was a military insurrection of the Polish people in the Grand Duchy of Poznań against the occupying Prussian forces, lead by Ludwik Mirosławski who later lead the defence of Rastatt in South Germany. In Berlin, the Prussian capital, crowds of people gathered, particularly in the beer gardens and outside the gates of town (or the royal palace), their demands culminating in an "address to the king". King Frederick William, overwhelmed by this pressure, yielded verbally to all the demonstrators' demands, including parliamentary elections, a constitution, and freedom of the press. He even promised that "Prussia was to be merged forthwith into Germany." However, on March 18, a large demonstration occurred (presumably in Berlin, look this up), and someone accidentally shot two people, leading to an escalation of tensions. Barricades were erected, fighting started, and blood flowed until troops were ordered to retreat. Afterwards, Frederick William attempted to reassure the public that the reorganization of his government would proceed, and the king also approved the idea of arming the citizens. On March 21, he paraded through the streets of Berlin accompanied by some ministers and generals, all wearing the tricolor of black, red, and yellow (the flag of the new Germany, symbolising respectively gunpowder, blood and flames). The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1701-1918 The word Prussia (German: Preußen, Polish: Prusy, Lithuanian: PrÅ«sai, Latin: Borussia) has had various (often contradictory) meanings: The land of the Baltic Prussians (in what is now parts of southern Lithuania, the Kaliningrad exclave of Russia and... Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 (Polish: powstanie wielkopolskie 1848 roku) was a military insurrection of the Polish people in the Grand Duchy of PoznaÅ„ (or the Greater Poland region) against the occupying Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period. ... Grand Duchy of Poznan coat of arms Grand Duchy of PoznaÅ„ (Polish: Wielkie KsiÄ™stwo PoznaÅ„skie, German: Großherzogtum Posen) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Polish lands commonly known as Great Poland between the years 1815-1918. ... Map of Germany showing Rastatt Rastatt is a city in the District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... King Frederick William IV of Prussia (October 15, 1795 - January 2, 1861), the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861. ...

Backlash in Prussia

By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats (among them Otto von Bismarck) and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, they had only retreated temporarily. General von Wrangel led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King Frederick William IV immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the new Prussian parliament and put forth a constitution of his own (based upon the work of the assembly, but maintaining the ultimate authority of the king). Elaborated in the following years, the constitution came to provide for an upper house (Herrenhaus), and a lower house (Landtag), chosen by universal suffrage but under a three-class system of voting ("Dreiklassenwahlrecht"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80 % of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats. Count Otto von Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg (April 1, 1815 – July 30, 1898) was one of the most prominent European aristocrats and statesmen of the nineteenth century. ... After the 1848 revolutions in the German states, the Prussian three-class franchise system (Dreiklassenwahlrecht) was introduced in 1849 by the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm IV for the election of the Lower House of the Prussian state parliament. ... A tax is a compulsory charge or other levy imposed on an individual or a legal entity by a state or a functional equivalent of a state (e. ...

Bavaria

In Bavaria, a new liberal government (the "March ministry") was installed; King Ludwig I was forced to abdicate and get rid of his free-spending mistress, Lola Montez, in attempts to pacify the public, contain the spreading of revolutionary ideas and save the monarchy by offering concessions. The Free State of Bavaria  (German: Freistaat Bayern), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12. ... Ludwig I (or Louis I, which is the French form of his name) (August 25, 1786 – February 29, 1868) was king of Bavaria from 1825 until 1848. ... Eliza Rosanna Gilbert (February 17, 1821 – January 17, 1861), better known by the stage name Lola Montez, was an Irish-born dancer and actress who became famous as the mistress of King Ludwig I of Bavaria. ...

Saxony

The May uprising in Dresden in a contemporary print

In Dresden, the people took to the streets asking their king to engage in electoral reform and social justice. Richard Wagner passionately engaged himself in the revolution, supporting the democratic-republican movement. Later in the May Uprising in Dresden from May 3-9, 1849 he supported the provisional government. Together with the leaders of the uprising, he left Dresden on May 9, thus avoiding the warrant for his arrest by flight to exile in Switzerland.



With an area of 18,413 km² and a population of 4. ... Download high resolution version (1239x733, 162 KB)Fighting on the barricades in 1848, Germany This image is not licensed under the GFDL. It is under a non-commercial-use only licence. ... Download high resolution version (1239x733, 162 KB)Fighting on the barricades in 1848, Germany This image is not licensed under the GFDL. It is under a non-commercial-use only licence. ... Dresden, the capital city of the German federal state of Saxony, is situated in a valley on the river Elbe. ... Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner (May 22, 1813 in Leipzig – February 13, 1883 in Venice) was an influential German composer, conductor, music theorist, and essayist, primarily known for his groundbreaking symphonic-operas (or music dramas). His compositions are notable for their continuous contrapuntal texture, rich harmonies and orchestration, and elaborate... Revolutionary barricades in Germany The May Uprising took place in Dresden, Germany in 1849; it was one of the last of the series of events known as the Revolutions of 1848. ...

Frankfurt: The National Assembly meets in St. Paul's Church

Archduke Johann's proclamation to the German people upon appointment as Administrator of the Realm

In Heidelberg, in the state of Baden (southwest Germany), on March 5 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This prototype Parliament met on March 31, in Frankfurt's St. Paul's Church. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for all of Germany - and the German states agreed. ▶ (help· info) is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1175x1800, 583 KB) Die Proklamation des Reichsverwesers am 15. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1175x1800, 583 KB) Die Proklamation des Reichsverwesers am 15. ... Johann, Archduke of Austria, b. ... Heidelberg (halfway between Stuttgart and Frankfurt) is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. ... For other uses, see Baden (disambiguation). ... March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). ... March 31 is the 90th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (91st in Leap years), with 275 days remaining, as the final day of March. ... The Paulskirche seen from the Maintower The Paulskirche is a church in Frankfurt am Main with important political symbolism in Germany. ...

Finally, on May 18, 1848 the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 550 delegates of the first freely elected German parliament, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a professors' parliament ("Professorenparlament"). There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of political factions - usually named after their venues:

• Café Milani - Right/Conservative (40)
• Casino - Right centre/Liberal-conservative (120)
• Landsberg - Centre/Liberal (40)
• Württemberger Hof - Left centre (100)
• Deutscher Hof - Left/Liberal democrats (60)
• Donnersberg - Extreme left/Democrats (40)

Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician Heinrich von Gagern, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany. Far left is a vague term used to refer to people or ideas falling into the general category of left wing which the speaker considers to be extreme. ...

From the beginning the main problems were regionalism, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. Archduke Johann of Austria was chosen as a temporary head of state ("Reichsverweser" i.e. imperial vicar). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. Hence the weakness of the assembly became apparent right from the start. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the Schleswig-Holstein question without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discredition occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force. Johann, Archduke of Austria, b. ... Schleswig-Holstein is the northernmost of the 16 Bundesländer in Germany. ...

Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were:

• Should the new united Germany comprise the German-speaking areas of Austria and thus separate these territories constitutionally from the remaining areas of the Habsburg Empire ("greater German solution"), or should it exclude Austria, with leadership falling to Prussia ("smaller German solution")? Finally, this question was settled when the Austrian Prime Minister introduced a centralised constitution for the entire Austrian Empire, thus delegates had to give up their hopes for a "Greater Germany".
• Should Germany become a hereditary monarchy, have an elected monarch, or even become a republic?
• Should it be a federation of relatively independent states or have a strong central government?

Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate Robert Blum had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on November 9, despite his claim to immunity from prosecution as a member of the National Assembly. Robert Blum (10 November 1807 - 9 November 1848) was a German politician and member of the National Assembly of 1848. ... November 9 is the 313th day of the year (314th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 52 days remaining. ...

Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with society.

In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On March 28, 1849, the draft of the constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a constitutional monarchy, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover and Saxony. March 28 is the 87th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (88th in Leap years). ...

The end of the Revolutions in the German states

On April 2, 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King Frederick William IV in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution. 2 April is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 273 days remaining. ... The Crown is a term which is used to separate the government authority and property of the state in a kingdom from any personal influence and private assets held by the current Monarch. ...

Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. In a letter to a relative in England, he wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered "from the gutter" a crown, "disgraced by the stink of revolution, baked of dirt and mud."

Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, and the Assembly itself slowly disintegrated afterwards. Its most radical members retired to Stuttgart, where they sat from June 6-18 as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by Württemberg troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the Palatinate and Baden were short-lived, as the local military, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms. The Rump Parliament was the remnant of the Long Parliament, following Prides Purge on 6 December 1648. ... Württemberg (often spelled Wurttemberg in English) refers to an area and a former state in Swabia, a region in south-western Germany. ... A palatinate is an area administered by a count palatine, originally the direct representative of the sovereign but later the hereditary ruler of the territory subject to the crowns overlordship. ... For other uses, see Baden (disambiguation). ...

The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were repealed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the overwhelming number of tasks it faced and because of lack of mass support and actual power.

Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably Carl Schurz. Such emigrants became known as the Forty-Eighters. Carl Schurz Carl Schurz (March 2, 1829 – May 14, 1906) was a German revolutionist, American statesman and reformer, and Union Army general in the American Civil War. ... The Forty-Eighters were Germans who traveled to the United States and Australia after the Revolutions of 1848. ...

Literature

• Klaus Herdepe: Die Preußische Verfassungsfrage 1848, (= Deutsche Universitätsedition Bd. 22) ars et unitas : Neuried 2003, 454 S., ISBN 3-936117-22-5 (The Prussian Constitution in 1848)
• Justine D Randers-Pehrson (1999), Germans and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (ISBN 082044118X)

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External links and references

• 1848: REVOLUTION AND REACTION
• German Revolution of 1848/49
• The German 1848 Revolution: A German Perspective

Next: The Italian states // The Italian states in 1848 As with Germany, there was no Italy at the time of the Revolutions of 1848, but a hodge-podge of states. ...