Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. Founder of the De Beers Mining Company, one of the first diamond companies, Rhodes was also the owner of the British South Africa Company, which carved out Rhodesia for itself. He wanted to "paint the map [British] red", and once famously declared: "all of these stars... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets".^[1]

The Scramble for Africa (or the Race for Africa) was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Imperialism period, between the 1880s and the start of World War I. The term New Imperialism refers to the policy and ideology of imperial colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... The Rise of the New Imperialism overlaps with the Pax Britannica period (1815-1870). ... Western imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. ... // The accumulation theory The accumulation theory, conceived largely by J.A. Hobson and later Lenin, centres on the accumulation of surplus capital during the Second Industrial Revolution. ... Image File history File links Cecil Rhodes, Africa File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Cecil Rhodes, Africa File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Cecil Rhodes. ... Rhodes: Cape to Cairo The Cape-Cairo Railway is an uncompleted project to cross Africa from south to north by rail. ... The De Beers Group is a Johannesburg- and London-based diamond mining and trading corporation. ... This article is about the gemstone. ... The flag of the British South Africa Company The British South Africa Company (BSAC) was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company, Ltd. ... National motto: Sit Nomine Digna (Latin: May she be worthy of the name) Official language English Capital Salisbury Political system Parliamentary system Form of government Constitutional monarchy (until 1970) Republic (March 2, 1970) - Last President John Wrathall - Prime Minister Ian Smith Area  - Total  - % water 390 580 km² 1% Population  - 1978... The term New Imperialism refers to the policy and ideology of imperial colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... // Development and commercial production of electric lighting Development and commercial production of gasoline-powered automobile by Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Maybach First commercial production and sales of phonographs and phonograph recordings. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz...

The latter half of the 19th century saw the transition from the "informal" imperialism of control through military influence and economic dominance to that of direct rule. Attempts to mediate imperial competition, such as the Berlin Conference (1884 - 1885) among the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the French Third Republic and the German Empire, failed to establish definitively the competing powers' claims. These disputes over Africa were among the central factors precipitating the First World War. Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Berlin Conference (German: Kongokonferenz or Congo Conference) of 1884–85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. ... 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) is a leap year starting on Tuesday (click on link to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right)1 Anthem: God Save the King/Queen Territory of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Capital London Language(s) English Gaelic Welsh (Wales) Scottish Gaelic (parts of Scotland) Government Constitutional monarchy Monarch  - 1801–1820 George III  - 1920–1922... The French Third Republic, (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe République) (1870/75-10 July 1940) was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime. ... Motto: Gott mit Uns (German: God with us”) Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz (unofficial) Territory of the German Empire in 1914, prior to World War I Capital Berlin Language(s) Official: German Unofficial minority languages: Polish (Posen, Lower Silesia,Upper Silesia, Masuria) French (Alsace-Lorraine) Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor  - 1871... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz...

Opening of the continent

Further information: Age of Exploration

David Livingstone, early explorer of the interior of Africa who discovered in 1855 the Mosi-oa-Tunya waterfall, which he renamed Victoria Falls. He failed however in locating the source of the Nile.

Henry Morton Stanley, discoverer of the 'lost' Livingstone and founder of the Congo Free State on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium.

The opening of Africa to Western exploration and exploitation had begun in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. Among the most famous of the European explorers was David Livingstone, who charted the vast interior and Serpa Pinto, who crossed both Southern Africa and Central Africa on a difficult expedition, mapping much of the interior of the continent. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. By the end of the century, Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers had been traced, and the world now realized the vast resources of Africa. The so-called Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships were traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. ... Image File history File links Davidlivingstone. ... Image File history File links Davidlivingstone. ... David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish Presbyterian pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and explorer in central Africa. ... 1855 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Nile (Arabic: ‎, translit: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river, though not the most voluminous, in the world. ... Henry Morton Stanley (source) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Henry Morton Stanley (source) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Sir Henry Morton Stanley (also known as Bula Matari (Breaker of Rocks) in Congo), born John Rowlands (January 28, 1841 – May 10, 1904), was a 19th-century Welsh-born American journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and his search for David Livingstone. ... The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... King Léopold II His Majesty King Léopold II of the Belgians (Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (April 9, 1835–December 17, 1909), succeeded his father, Léopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ... | Come and take it, slogan of the Texas Revolution 1835 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... World map showing Europe A satellite composite image of Europe Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of the Earth. ... David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish Presbyterian pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and explorer in central Africa. ... Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto (April 20, 1846 - December 28, 1900) was a Portuguese explorer and colonial administrator who crossed southern and central Africa on a difficult expedition and mapped the interior of the continent. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ... Richard Burton, portrait by Frederic Leighton, National Portrait Gallery, London. ... John Hanning Speke (May 4, 1827 – September 15, 1864) was an officer in the British Indian army, who made three voyages of exploration to Africa. ... James Augustus Grant (April 11, 1827 — February 11, 1892) was a Scottish explorer of eastern equatorial Africa. ... The Great Lakes and the East African coastline as seen from space. ... The Nile (Arabic: ‎, translit: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river, though not the most voluminous, in the world. ... Zambezi River in North Western Zambia The Zambezi (also spelled Zambesi) is a river in Southern Africa. ... Natural resources are commodities that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. ...

However, on the eve of the scramble for Africa, only ten percent of the continent was under the control of Western nations. In 1875, the most important holdings were Algeria, whose conquest by France had started in the 1830s — despite Abd al-Qadir's strong resistance and the Kabyles' rebellion in the 1870s; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom, and Angola, held by Portugal. 1875 (MDCCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... `Abd al-Qādir al-JazāirÄ«. `Abd al-Qādir al-JazāirÄ« (6 September 1808 - 26 May 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري) was an Algerian Islamic scholar, Sufi, political and military leader who led a struggle against the French invasion in the mid-nineteenth century, for which he is seen... This article focuses on the geographical area of Kabylie and its people. ... Anthem: God Save the Queen Cape Colony Capital Cape Town Language(s) English and Dutch1 Religion Dutch Reformed Church, Anglican Government Constitutional monarchy Last Monarch King George VI Last Prime Minister  - 1908 – 1910 John X. Merriman Last Governor  - 1901 - 1910 Walter Hely-Hutchinson Historical era 19th century  - Dutch East India...

Technological advancement facilitated overseas expansionism. Industrialization brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railroads, and telegraphs. Medical advances also were important, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, enabled vast expanses of the tropics to be penetrated. Paddle steamers — Lucerne, Switzerland. ... Railway tracks running through a railway station in North East England A railway yard in Portland, Oregon. ... Optical Telegraf of Claude Chappe on the Litermont near Nalbach, Germany Telegraph and telegram redirect here. ... Tropical diseases are infectious diseases that either occur uniquely in tropical and subtropical regions (which is rare) or, more commonly, are either more widespread in the tropics or more difficult to prevent or control. ... Quinine is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic, anti-malarial with analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. ... Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease that is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. ...

Causes of the scramble

Africa and global markets

European claims in Africa, 1914

Further information: Rise of the New Imperialism

Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism" and "civilization", was also attractive to Europe's ruling elites for economic and racial reasons. During a time when Britain's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873-1896), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner it a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the metropole than it sold overall. Britain, like most other industrial countries, had long since begun to run an unfavorable balance of trade (which was increasingly offset, however, by the income from overseas investments). Image File history File links ColonialAfrica_1914. ... Image File history File links ColonialAfrica_1914. ... The Rise of the New Imperialism overlaps with the Pax Britannica period (1815-1870). ... A geographical map of Africa, showing the ecological break that defines the sub-Saharan area A political map showing national divisions in relation to the ecological break Sub-Saharan Africa is the term used to describe those countries of the African continent that are not considered part of North Africa. ... Cities are a major hallmark of human civilization. ... The balance of trade (or net exports, NX) is the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports in an economy over a certain period of time. ... Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between nations, through methods such as high tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, a variety of restrictive government regulations designed to discourage imports, and anti-dumping laws in an attempt to protect domestic industries in a particular nation from foreign take-over... The Long Depression (1873 – 1896) was a depression that affected much of the world from the early 1870s until the mid-1890s, contemporary of the Second Industrial Revolution. ...

As Britain developed into the world's first post-industrial nation, financial services became an increasingly important sector of its economy. Invisible financial exports, as mentioned, kept Britain out of the red, especially capital investments outside Europe, particularly to the developing and open markets in Africa, predominantly white settler colonies, the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. Investment or investing is a term with several closely-related meanings in finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. ... A family of Russian settlers in the Caucasus region, ca. ... This article refers to a colony in politics and history. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... This article is about the geopolitical region in Asia. ... Location of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is a subregion of Asia. ... For the fictional superstate in George Orwells novel, see Oceania (Nineteen Eighty-Four). ...

In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap labor, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement to imperialism, of course, arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic pinkish red Atomic mass 63. ... Cotton ready for harvest. ... Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer which occurs as a milky colloidal suspension (known as latex) in the sap of several varieties of plants. ... Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan. ... General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Atomic mass 118. ...

However, in Africa — exclusive of what would become the Union of South Africa in 1909 — the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents, before and after the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes' De Beers Mining Company, who had carved out Rhodesia for himself, as Léopold II would exploit the Congo Free State. These observations might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbies such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi or Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets. However, according to the classic thesis of John A. Hobson, exposed in Imperialism (1902), which would influence authors such as Lenin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), Trotsky or Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this shrinking of continental markets was a main factor of the global New Imperialism period. Later historians have noted that such statistics only obscured the fact that formal control of tropical Africa had great strategic value in an era of imperial rivalry, while the Suez Canal has remained a strategic location. The 1886 Witwatersrand Gold Rush, which lead to the foundation of Johannesburg and was a major factor of the Second Boer War in 1899, accounted for the "conjunction of the superfluous money and of the superfluous manpower, which gave themselves their hand to quit together the country", which is in itself, according to Hannah Arendt, the new element of the imperialist era. National motto: Ex Unitate Vires (Latin: From Unity, strength} Official languages Afrikaans, Dutch and English. ... Year 1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The Berlin Conference (German: Kongokonferenz or Congo Conference) of 1884–85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. ... Cecil Rhodes. ... The De Beers Group is a Johannesburg- and London-based diamond mining and trading corporation. ... National motto: Sit Nomine Digna (Latin: May she be worthy of the name) Official language English Capital Salisbury Political system Parliamentary system Form of government Constitutional monarchy (until 1970) Republic (March 2, 1970) - Last President John Wrathall - Prime Minister Ian Smith Area  - Total  - % water 390 580 km² 1% Population  - 1978... King Léopold II His Majesty King Léopold II of the Belgians (Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (April 9, 1835–December 17, 1909), succeeded his father, Léopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... It has been suggested that Interest representation: Academic overview be merged into this article or section. ... Alldeutscher Verband (German for All German Union or Pangermanic League, 1891-1939) was a German far-right organization which promoted pangermanism and imperialism, created in 1891 in protest to the exchange of Heligoland for Zanzibar. ... Francesco Crispi (October 4, 1819 – August 12, 1901) was a 19th century Italian politician. ... Jules Ferry, French statesman Jules François Camille Ferry (April 5, 1832 – March 17, 1893) was a French statesman. ... John Atkinson Hobson (July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) was an English economist and imperial critic, widely popular as a lecturer and writer. ... Imperialism was a political-economic discourse written by John A. Hobson in 1902. ... Vladimir Ilyich Lenin ( Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин  listen?), original surname Ulyanov (Улья́нов) ( April 22 (April 10 ( O.S.)), 1870 – January 21, 1924), was a... 1915 passport photo of Trotsky Leon Davidovich Trotsky (Russian: Лев Давидович Троцкий; also transliterated Trotskii, Trotski, Trotzky) (October 26 (O.S.) = November 7 (N.S.), 1879 - August 21, 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein (&#1051... Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a Jewish-German (later American) political theorist. ... The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt, dedicated to her husband Heinrich Blücher. ... Ships moored at El Ballah during transit Egypt: Site of Suez Canal (top). ... The Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the establishment of Johannesburg, South Africa are closely connected. ... City motto: Unity in Development Province Gauteng Mayor Amos Masondo Area  - % water 1,644 km² 0. ... Combatants United Kingdom Australia New Zealand Canada Cape Colony Orange Free State South African Republic Commanders Redvers Buller Frederick Roberts Herbert Kitchener Paul Kruger Martinus Steyn Louis Botha Christiaan de Wet Casualties 22,000 6,500 Civilians killed [mainly Boers]: 24,000+ The Second Boer War, commonly referred to as...

Strategic rivalry

Poster for the 1906 Colonial Exhibition in Marseilles (France).

While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other regions overseas were. The vast interior — between the gold- and diamond-rich Southern Africa and Egypt, had, however, key strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was thus under intense political pressure, especially among supporters of the Conservative Party, to secure lucrative markets such as British Raj India, Qing Dynasty China, and Latin America from encroaching rivals. Thus, securing the key waterway between East and West — the Suez Canal— was crucial. The rivalry between the UK, France, Germany and the other European powers account for a large part of the colonization. Thus, while Germany, which had been unified under Prussia's rule only after the 1866 Battle of Sadowa and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, it would eagerly participate in the race. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Great Britain, it hadn't yet had the chance to control oversea territories, mainly due to its late unification, its fragmentation in various states, and its absence of experience in modern navigation. This would change under Bismarck's leadership, who implemented the Weltpolitik (World Policy) and, after putting in place the bases of France's isolation with the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, called for the 1884-85 Berlin Conference which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Germany's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Great Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second largest naval force in the world (roughly 40% smaller than the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, thus demonstrating that the main supports of the European nation states' imperialism were the rising bourgeoisie classes.^[2] Image File history File links 1906_Colonial_Exhibition. ... Image File history File links 1906_Colonial_Exhibition. ... The Colonial Exhibitions were supposed to bolster popular support for the various colonial empires. ... Marseilles redirects here. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ... The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative & Unionist Party) is currently the second largest political party in the United Kingdom in terms of sitting Members of Parliament (MPs), and the largest in terms of public membership. ... The British Empire at its zenith in 1919. ... The Qing Dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: QÄ«ng cháo; Wade-Giles: Ching chao; Manchu: daicing gurun), occasionally known as the Manchu Dynasty, was a dynasty founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro, in what is today northeast China, expanded into China and the surrounding territories, establishing the Empire... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ... Ships moored at El Ballah during transit Egypt: Site of Suez Canal (top). ... Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Prussia, 1701-1918 Prussia (German: ; Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Lithuanian: ; Polish: ; Old Prussian: PrÅ«sa) was, most recently, a historic state originating in East Prussia, an area which for centuries had substantial influence on German and European history. ... painting of the battle by Georg Bleibtreu (1869) In the Battle of Königgrätz or Battle of Sadowa of July 3, 1866, the Austro-Prussian War was decided in favor of Prussia. ... Combatants Second French Empire North German Confederation allied with south German states (later German Empire) Commanders Napoleon III # Otto Von Bismarck Strength 500,000[] 550,000[] Casualties 150,000 dead or wounded 284,000 captured 350,000 civilian [] 100,000 dead or wounded 200,000 civilian [] The Franco-Prussian War... A Watt steam engine in Madrid. ... Table of geography, hydrography, and navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... Bismarck redirects here. ... The Weltpolitik (world policy) strategy was adopted by Germany in the late 19th century, replacing the earlier Realpolitik approach. ... ... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... , Italian: Triplice Alleanza) was the treaty by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy pledged on 20 May 1882 to support each other militarily in against any of them by two or more great powers. ... Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territorial base (or economic influence) of a country, usually by means of military aggression. ... The Tirpitz Plan, formulated by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, was Germanys strategic aim to build the second largest navy in the world after the United Kingdom, thereby advancing itself as a world power. ... Alfred von Tirpitz Alfred von Tirpitz (March 19, 1849 – March 6, 1930) was a German Admiral, Minister of State and Commander of the Kaiserliche Marine in World War I from 1914 until 1916. ... The Fleet Acts were four separate laws passed by the German Empire, in 1898, 1900, 1908, and 1912. ... An Arms Race is a competition between two or more countries for military supremacy. ... The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore the Senior Service). ... The National Liberal Party (Nationalliberale Partei) was a German political party which flourished between 1867 and 1918. ... This article is about the political concept. ... Bourgeoisie (RP [], GA []) refers to a group of people whose social and political opinions are determined primarily by concern for property values and personal appearance of wealth. ...

Bismarck's Weltpolitik

Behanzin, eleventh king of Dahomey in 1894, year of its conquest by France.

Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s under Bismarck's leadership, encouraged by the national bourgeoisie. Some of them, claiming themselves of Friedrich List's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and in Timor, other proposed to set themselves in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. In the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, known as the Weltpolitik ("World Policy"), which was backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe-Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent oversea policy".^[3] Pan-germanism was thus linked to the young nation's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. 1894 photo of King of Dahomey, Behanzin This image is in the public domain in the United States and possibly other jurisdictions. ... 1894 photo of King of Dahomey, Behanzin This image is in the public domain in the United States and possibly other jurisdictions. ... Behanzin in 1894 Behanzin (d. ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... Friedrich List (August 6, 1789 - November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th Century German economist who believed in the National System. // He was born at Reutlingen, Württemberg. ... Map of Timor Timor Island from space, November 1989. ... This article is about the history, geography, and people of the island known as Taiwan. ... The Weltpolitik (world policy) strategy was adopted by Germany in the late 19th century, replacing the earlier Realpolitik approach. ... A painting of a French seaport from 1638, at the height of mercantilism. ... Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ... Pan-Germanism, one of the ethnically-charged political movements of the 19th century for unity of the German-speaking peoples of Europe. ... Alldeutscher Verband (German for All German Union or Pangermanic League, 1891-1939) was a German far-right organization which promoted pangermanism and imperialism, created in 1891 in protest to the exchange of Heligoland for Zanzibar. ...

Germany thus became the third largest colonial power in Africa, acquiring an overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometers and 14 million colonial subjects, mostly in its African possessions (Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika). The scramble for Africa led Bismarck to propose the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the UK, Germany tried to test the alliance in 1905, with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of others territories, and then to the 1911 Agadir Crisis. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and the UK, this succession of international crisis proves the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialisms, which ultimately led to World War I. The Entente Cordiale (French for friendly understanding) is a series of agreements signed on April 8, 1904, between the United Kingdom and France. ... The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) refers to the international crisis over the colonial status of Morocco between March 1905 and May 1906. ... The Algeciras Conference of 1906 took place in Algeciras, Spain, and lasted from January 16 to April 7. ... The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. ... The Fashoda Incident (1898) was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. ... An international crisis is a crisis between nations. ... Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz...

The clash of rival imperialisms

Francesco Crispi, Italian prime minister (1887-1891;1893-96). Crispi opposed himself to Radical Felice Cavallotti over the Triple Alliance and the abandon of the Eritrean colony. He resigned after the 1896 defeat at Adowa during the First Italo-Abyssinian War.

While de Brazza was exploring the Kongo Kingdom for France, Stanley also explored it in the early 1880s on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have his personal Congo Free State. Image File history File links Francesco Crispi File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Francesco Crispi File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Francesco Crispi (October 4, 1819 – August 12, 1901) was a 19th century Italian politician. ... Please wikify (format) this article or section as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... , Italian: Triplice Alleanza) was the treaty by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy pledged on 20 May 1882 to support each other militarily in against any of them by two or more great powers. ... Anthem: Ertra, Ertra, Ertra Capital (and largest city) Asmara Official languages none1 Government Transitional government  - President Isaias Afewerki Independence from Ethiopia   - De facto May 29, 1991   - De jure May 24, 1993  Area  - Total 117,600 km² (100th) 45,405 sq mi   - Water (%) negligible Population  - July 2005 estimate 4,401,000... Combatants Ethiopia Kingdom of Italy Commanders Ras Makonnen Oreste Baratieri Strength ~100,000 (80,000 with firearms), Unknown number of artillery and machine guns 17,700 (all with firearms), 56 artillery guns Casualties 4,000-6,000 killed, 8,000 wounded[1] 7,000 killed, 1,500 wounded, 3,000... The First Italian-Abyssinian War was one of the very few instances of successful armed African resistance to European colonialism in the 19th century. ... Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza in his version of native dress, photographed by Félix Nadar. ... The Empire Kongo The Kongo Kingdom was an African kingdom located in southwest Africa in what are now northern Angola, Cabinda, Republic of the Congo, and the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Sir Henry Morton Stanley (also known as Bula Matari (Breaker of Rocks) in Congo), born John Rowlands (January 28, 1841 – May 10, 1904), was a 19th-century Welsh-born American journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and his search for David Livingstone. ... King Léopold II His Majesty King Léopold II of the Belgians (Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (April 9, 1835–December 17, 1909), succeeded his father, Léopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ...

France occupied Tunisia in May 1881 (and Guinea in 1884), which partly convinced Italy to adhere in 1882 to the German-Austrian Dual Alliance, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Great Britain occupied the nominally Ottoman Egypt, which in turn ruled over the Sudan and parts of Somalia. In 1870 and 1882, Italy took possession of the first parts of Eritrea, while Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection in 1884. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa (AEF) in 1910. The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was created by treaty on October 7, 1879. ... , Italian: Triplice Alleanza) was the treaty by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy pledged on 20 May 1882 to support each other militarily in against any of them by two or more great powers. ... Togoland was a German protectorate in West Africa. ... South-West Africa is the former name (1884-1990) of Namibia under German (as German South-West Africa, Deutsch Süd-West Afrika) and (from 1915) South African administration when it was conqured from the Germans during World War I. Following the war, the Treaty of Versailles declared the territory... Location of French West Africa French West Africa (French: ) was a federation of eight French territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte dIvoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin). ... Location of French Equatorial Africa. ...

Italy continued its conquest to gain its "place in the sun". Following the defeat of the First Italo-Abyssinian War (1895-96), it acquired Somaliland in 1899-90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). Enrico Corradini, who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF), developed in 1919 the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimize Italy's imperialism by a surprising mixture of socialism with nationalism: "We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject...to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realized, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation."^[4] The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-36), ordered by Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonize a foreign country, opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia for 5 years, which had remained the last African independent territory. The Spanish Civil War, marking for some the beginning of the European Civil War, would begin in 1936. A place in the sun is a term which commonly refers to the 19th century European colonial empires and their possessions. ... The First Italian-Abyssinian War was one of the very few instances of successful armed African resistance to European colonialism in the 19th century. ... Motto: لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله  (Arabic) Lā ilāhā illā-llāhu; muhammadun rasÅ«lu-llāhi  (transliteration) There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah And also : Justice, Peace, Freedom, Democracy and Success for All Anthem: Saamo ku waar Capital Hargeisa (1941-1960, 1991 - present) Official languages Somali, Arabic... The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and Italy from September 28, 1911 to October 18, 1912. ... Tripolitania is a historic region of western Libya, centered around the coastal city of Tripoli. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Enrico Corradini (1865, near Montelupo Fiorentino—1931, Rome) was an Italian novelist, essayist, journalist, and nationalist political figure. ... The National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF) was an Italian party, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Fascism (previously represented by groups known as Fasci; see also Italian fascism). ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. ... Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Combatants Italy Ethiopia Commanders Emilio De Bono Pietro Badoglio Rodolfo Graziani Haile Selassie Strength 800,000 (only ~330,000 mobilized) 500,000 (some ill-equipped) Casualties 15,000 dead or wounded 275,000[1] The Second Italo–Abyssinian War lasted seven months in 1935–1936. ... Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 – April 28, 1945) was the prime minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 until 1943, when he was overthrown. ... Flag of Mozambique — independent since 1975, with the kalashnikov as symbol of the armed struggle against the Portuguese empire, the book as symbol of instruction and a farm instrument as symbol of economic growth. ... Combatants Spanish Republic Soviet Union Nationalist Spain Italy Germany Commanders Manuel Azaña Francisco Largo Caballero Juan Negrín Francisco Franco Casualties Hundreds of thousands The Spanish Civil War, which lasted from July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939, was a conflict in which the Francoists or Nationalists, led by... The European Civil War is a debated period in history between the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War on July 19, 1870 and end of the European portion of World War II on May 8, 1945. ...

On the other hand, the British abandoned their splendid isolation in 1902 with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, which would enable the Empire of Japan to be victorious during the war against Russia (1904-05). The UK then signed the Entente cordiale with France in 1904, and, in 1907, the Triple Entente which included Russia, thus pitted against the Triple Alliance which Bismarck had patiently made up. Splendid Isolation is the foreign policy pursued by Britain during the late 19th century, under the premierships of Benjamin Disraeli and The Marquess of Salisbury. ... The first Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed in London on January 30, 1902 by Lord Lansdowne (British foreign secretary) and Hayashi Tadasu (Japanese minister in London). ... Anthem: Kimi Ga Yo Imperial Reign Slogan: Fukoku Kyohei Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Military Imperial Japan at its fullest extent during World War II Capital Tokyo Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor  - 1852-1912 Emperor Meiji  - 1912-1926 Emperor Taishō  - 1926-1989 Emperor Shōwa Prime Minister (many other Prime Ministers... Combatants Imperial Russia Empire of Japan Commanders N/A N/A Strength 500,000 Soldiers 400,000 Soldiers Casualties 134,817+ KIA/POW, 170,000 MIA etc. ... The Entente Cordiale (French for friendly understanding) is a series of agreements signed on April 8, 1904, between the United Kingdom and France. ... European military alliances in 1915. ... Bismarck redirects here. ...

The American Colonization Society and the foundation of Liberia

Main articles: American Colonization Society and History of Liberia

The United States took part, marginally, in this enterprise, through the American Colonization Society (ACS), established in 1816 by Robert Finley. The ACS offered emigration to Liberia ("Land of the Free"), a colony founded in 1820, to free black slaves; emancipated slave Lott Cary actually became the first American Baptist missionary in Africa. This colonization attempt was resisted by the native people. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For the musician Robert Finley, who is famous for sequencing MIDI recordings of classical music, please see Robert Finley (musician). ... Slave sale in Easton, Maryland The history of slavery in the United States began soon after Europeans first settled in what in 1776 became the United States. ... Lott Cary (1780-1828) was an African American slave, born in Charles City County, Virginia. ... A Baptist is a member of a Baptist church or any follower of Jesus Christ who believes that baptism is administered by the full immersion of a confessing Christian. ... A missionary is traditionally defined as a propagator of religion who works to convert those outside that community; someone who proselytizes. ...

James Monroe, first president of the American Colonization Society and US president (1817-1825). He invented the Monroe Doctrine, base of the US isolationism during the 19th century.

Led by Southerners, the American Colonization Society's first president was James Monroe, from Virginia, who became the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. Thus, one of the main proponents of American colonization of Africa was the same man who proclaimed, in his 1823 State of the Union address, the US opinion that European powers should no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas. In return, the US planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and in wars between a European power and its colonies. However, if these latter type of wars were to occur in the Americas, the U.S. would view such action as hostile toward itself. This famous statement became known as the Monroe Doctrine and was the base of the US' isolationism during the 19th century. National Portrait Gallery. ... National Portrait Gallery. ... James Monroe (April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831) was the fifth President of the United States (1817-1825). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... U.S. President James Monroe The Monroe Doctrine is a U.S. doctrine which, on December 2, 1823, proclaimed that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the nations of the Americas. ... Non-interventionism, the diplomatic policy whereby a nation seeks to avoid alliances with other nations, has had a long history in the United States. ... Historic Southern United States. ... James Monroe (April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831) was the fifth President of the United States (1817-1825). ... Official language(s) English Capital Richmond Largest city Virginia Beach Area  Ranked 35th  - Total 42,793 sq mi (110,862 km²)  - Width 200 miles (320 km)  - Length 430 miles (690 km)  - % water 7. ... The presidential seal was used by President Hayes in 1880 and last modified in 1959 by adding the 50th star for Hawaii. ... Alternative meanings in State of the Union (disambiguation) The State of the Union Address is an annual event in which the President of the United States reports on the status of the country, normally to a joint session of the U.S. Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). ... Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... Look up Sovereign in Wiktionary, the free dictionary The adjective sovereign is used to refer to a state of sovereignty. ... U.S. President James Monroe The Monroe Doctrine is a U.S. doctrine which, on December 2, 1823, proclaimed that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the nations of the Americas. ... Non-interventionism, the diplomatic policy whereby a nation seeks to avoid alliances with other nations, has had a long history in the United States. ...

Although the Liberia colony never became quite as big as envisaged, it was only the first step in the American colonization of Africa, according to its early proponents. Thus, Jehudi Ashmun, an early leader of the ACS, envisioned an American empire in Africa. Between 1825 and 1826, he took steps to lease, annex, or buy tribal lands along the coast and along major rivers leading inland. Like his predecessor Lt. Robert Stockton, who in 1821 established the site for Monrovia by "persuading" a local chief referred to as "King Peter" to sell Cape Montserado (or Mesurado) by pointing a pistol at his head, Ashmun was prepared to use force to extend the colony's territory. In a May 1825 treaty, King Peter and other native kings agreed to sell land in return for 500 bars of tobacco, three barrels of rum, five casks of powder, five umbrellas, ten iron posts, and ten pairs of shoes, among other items. In March 1825, the ACS began a quarterly, The African Repository and Colonial Journal, edited by Rev. Ralph Randolph Gurley (1797-1872), who headed the Society until 1844. Conceived as the Society's propaganda organ, the Repository promoted both colonization and Liberia. Jehudi Ashmun (April 21, 1794 - August 25, 1828) was a religious leader and social reformer. ... Robert Field Stockton (20 August 1795–7 October 1866) was a United States naval officer, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican-American War, who was from a notable political family also served as a U.S. Senator from New Jersey. ... For alternate meanings, see Monrovia (disambiguation). ... Ralph Randolph Gurley (May 26, 1797 - July 30, 1872) was a clergyman, an advocate of the separation of the races and a major force in the American Colonization Society, which offered passage to their colony in west Africa (now Liberia), to free black Americans. ...

The Society controlled the colony of Liberia until 1847 when, under the perception that the British might annex the settlement, Liberia was proclaimed a free and independent state, thus becoming the first African decolonised state. By 1867, the Society had sent more than 13,000 emigrants. After the American Civil War (1861-1865), when many blacks wanted to go to Liberia, financial support for colonization had waned. During its later years the society focused on educational and missionary efforts in Liberia rather than further emigration. Decolonization generally refers to a movement following the Second World War in which the various European colonies of the world were granted independence. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total...

A succession of international crises leading to World War I

The colonization of the Kongo Empire (early 1880s)

Main article: Kongo Empire

Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza in his version of "native" dress, photographed by Félix Nadar.

David Livingstone's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, galvanized the European nations into action. But at first, his ideas found little support, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organized the International African Association. From 1879 to 1884, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs and by 1882 obtained over 900,000 square miles (2,300,000 km²) of territory, the Congo Free State. Léopold II, who personally owned the colony starting in 1885 and exploited it for ivory and rubber, would impose such a terror regime on the colonized people that Belgium decided to annex it in 1908. Including mass killings and slave labour, the terror had made between 3 to 22 million victims. This prompted Belgium to end Leopold II's rule, under influence from the Congo Reform Association, and to annex the Congo in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo. The Empire Kongo The Kongo Kingdom was an African kingdom located in southwest Africa in what are now northern Angola, Cabinda, Republic of the Congo, and the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Image File history File links Pierre_Savorgnan_de_Brazza. ... Image File history File links Pierre_Savorgnan_de_Brazza. ... Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza in his version of native dress, photographed by Félix Nadar. ... Nadar (self-portrait) Nadar (Gaspard-Félix Tournachon) - Self-portrait For the Tamil caste, see Nadar caste. ... David Livingstone (19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish Presbyterian pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and explorer in central Africa. ... Sir Henry Morton Stanley (also known as Bula Matari (Breaker of Rocks) in Congo), born John Rowlands (January 28, 1841 – May 10, 1904), was a 19th-century Welsh-born American journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and his search for David Livingstone. ... King Léopold II His Majesty King Léopold II of the Belgians (Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (April 9, 1835–December 17, 1909), succeeded his father, Léopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... The Association Internationale Africaine (French) was an organization created by King Leopold II of Belgium for supposedly furthering humanitarian projects in the area of Central Africa that was to become the Congo Free State and subsequently todays Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Year 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar. ... The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer which occurs as a milky colloidal suspension (known as latex) in the sap of several varieties of plants. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Congo Reform Association exposed gross and rampant abuses of labor in King Leopold II of Belgiums Congo Free State, leading to the annexation of Congo by Belgium in 1908. ... Capital Léopoldville Government Protectorate Created 1908 Dissolved 1960 Official language(s) French, Dutch The Belgian Congo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) between King Léopold IIs formal relinquishment of personal control over the state to Belgium on 15 November 1908...

While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the French marine officer Pierre de Brazza traveled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Great Britain on February 26, 1884 to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic. Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza in his version of native dress, photographed by Félix Nadar. ... Image of Kinshasa and Brazzaville, taken by NASA. Brazzaville is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo and is located on the Congo River. ... The Empire Kongo The Kongo Kingdom was an African kingdom located in southwest Africa in what are now northern Angola, Cabinda, Republic of the Congo, and the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... February 26 is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) is a leap year starting on Tuesday (click on link to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

The Suez Canal

Nott's and Gliddon's Indigenous races of the earth (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negroes" ranked between whites and chimpanzees. Note the different angles at which the "white" and "negro" skulls are positioned. Such works were instrumental in the legitimation of colonialism.

As a result, the important developments were taking place in the Nile valley. Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, in 1854-56, to build the Suez Canal. During the decade of work, over 1.5 million Egyptians were forced to work on the canal, 125,000 of whom perished due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Isma'il Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, borrowed enormous sums from French and English bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il Pasha repudiated Egypt's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France assumed joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate. The Egyptian ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention. The Urabi Revolt broke out against the Khedive and European influence in 1882, a year after the Mahdist revolt. Muhammad Ahmad, who had proclaimed himself the Mahdi, redeemer of Islam, in 1881, led the rebellion and was defeated only by Kitchener in 1898. Britain then assumed responsibility for the administration of the country. Image File history File links A scientific demonstration from 1868 that the Negro is less evolved, by highlighting similarities to the young chimpanzee. ... Image File history File links A scientific demonstration from 1868 that the Negro is less evolved, by highlighting similarities to the young chimpanzee. ... This page is a candidate for speedy deletion, because: POV essay about the Vedic race - no mention of Josiah Clark Nott anywhere If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. ... George Robins Gliddon (1809-1857) was a British Egyptologist born in Devonshire in 1809. ... Scientific racism is racist propaganda disguised as science. ... // Negro means black in Spanish and Portuguese (Latin: niger = black). Before the 1970s, it was an ethnic term applied to black people of African origin; however it is now generally considered either archaic or a slur (see also nigger) except for its inclusion in the names of some organizations founded... Ferdinand de Lesseps. ... Ismail Pasha Ismail Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (December 31, 1830–March 2, 1895) (Arabic: إسماعيل باشا), was khedive of Egypt from 1863 until he was removed at the behest of the British in 1879. ... Ships moored at El Ballah during transit Egypt: Site of Suez Canal (top). ... Cholera is a water-borne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, which is typically ingested by drinking contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially shellfish. ... 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Ismail Pasha Ismail Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (December 31, 1830–March 2, 1895) (Arabic: إسماعيل باشا), was khedive of Egypt from 1863 until he was removed at the behest of the British in 1879. ... // Monarchs WālÄ«s (Governors) of Egypt, 1805-1867 Muḩammad ‘AlÄ« 1805-1848 IbrāhÄ«m 1848 Mu&#7721sdfsdfsdfssdf;ammad ‘AlÄ« (restored) 1848-1849 ‘Abbās I 1849-1854 Sa‘īd 1854-1863 Ismā‘īl 1863-1867 Khedives of Egypt, 1867-1914 Ismā‘īl 1867-1879 TawfÄ«q 1879... 1875 (MDCCCLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... The Prime Minister is in practice the most important political office in the United Kingdom. ... Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (December 21, 1804 - April 24, British Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and author. ... 1879 (MDCCCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... The Urabi Revolt was an uprising in Egypt in 1881-82 against the Khedive and European influence in the country. ... Khedive (from Persian for lord) was a title created in 1867 by the Ottoman Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz for the then-governor of Egypt, Ismail Pasha. ... Year 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar. ... Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Mohammed Ahmed) (12 August 1844–June 22, 1885) was a Muslim religious leader, a faqir, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. ... Image:Mahdi3. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. ... The Earl Kitchener The Right Honourable Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC (24 June 1850–5 June 1916) was a British Field Marshal, diplomat and statesman. ...

The 1884-85 Berlin Conference

Main article: Berlin Conference

The occupation of Egypt and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884-85 Berlin Conference to discuss the Africa problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided. The Berlin Conference (German: Kongokonferenz or Congo Conference) of 1884–85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. ... 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) is a leap year starting on Tuesday (click on link to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Bismarck redirects here. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Bottles of cachaça, a Brazilian alcoholic beverage. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the capital of Germany. ... King Léopold II His Majesty King Léopold II of the Belgians (Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (April 9, 1835–December 17, 1909), succeeded his father, Léopold I of Belgium, to the Belgian throne in 1865 and remained king until his death. ... The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ...

Britain's occupation of Egypt and South Africa

Boer women and children in a concentration camp during the Second Boer War (1899-1902).

Britain's occupations of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was occupied by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never a colony proper); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 1900s; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. In 1877, Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal — independent from 1857 to 1877) for the British. The UK consolidated its power over most of the colonies of South Africa in 1879 after the Anglo-Zulu War. The Boers protested and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880-1881). The head of the British government Gladstone (Liberal) signed a peace treaty on March 23, 1881, giving self-government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War was fought between 1899 to 1902; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and of the South African Republic (Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British empire. Photograph of Boer women and children in a British concentration camp. ... Photograph of Boer women and children in a British concentration camp. ... Boer is the Afrikaans (and Dutch) word for farmer which came to denote the descendants of the Afrikaans-speaking migrating farmers of the expanding eastern Cape frontier. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Combatants United Kingdom Australia New Zealand Canada Cape Colony Orange Free State South African Republic Commanders Redvers Buller Frederick Roberts Herbert Kitchener Paul Kruger Martinus Steyn Louis Botha Christiaan de Wet Casualties 22,000 6,500 Civilians killed [mainly Boers]: 24,000+ The Second Boer War, commonly referred to as... Anthem: God Save the Queen Cape Colony Capital Cape Town Language(s) English and Dutch1 Religion Dutch Reformed Church, Anglican Government Constitutional monarchy Last Monarch King George VI Last Prime Minister  - 1908 – 1910 John X. Merriman Last Governor  - 1901 - 1910 Walter Hely-Hutchinson Historical era 19th century  - Dutch East India... There is also Nile, a death metal band from South Carolina, USA. The Nile in Egypt Length 6 695 km Elevation of the source 1 134 m Average discharge 2 830 m³/s Area watershed 3 400 000 km² Origin Africa Mouth the Mediterranean Basin countries Uganda - Sudan - Egypt The... Year 1882 (MDCCCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar. ... Year 1914 (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The 1890s were sometimes referred to as the Mauve Decade, because William Henry Perkins aniline dye allowed the widespread use of that colour in fashion, and also as the Gay Nineties, under the then-current usage of the word gay which referred simply to merriment and frivolity, with no... // First flight by the Wright brothers, December 17, 1903. ... Anthem: God Save the Queen Cape Colony Capital Cape Town Language(s) English and Dutch1 Religion Dutch Reformed Church, Anglican Government Constitutional monarchy Last Monarch King George VI Last Prime Minister  - 1908 – 1910 John X. Merriman Last Governor  - 1901 - 1910 Walter Hely-Hutchinson Historical era 19th century  - Dutch East India... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Afrikaners are an ethnic group primarily associated with Southern Africa and the Afrikaans language. ... Sir Theophilus Shepstone (January 8, 1817 - June 23, 1893), British South African statesman, was born at Westbury near Bristol, England. ... Capital Pretoria Created 1857 - Independence 1881 - First Boer War Dissolved 1877 - 1st British Annexation 1900 - Formal Annexation Official language Dutch Spoken language Afrikaans This article is about the former country in Africa. ... Combatants Britain Zulu Nation Commanders Sir Bartle Frere, Frederick Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford Cetshwayo Strength 14,800 (6,400 Europeans 8,400 Africans) 40,000 Casualties 1,673 killed, 256 wounded 8,250+ killed, 3,000+ wounded The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between Britain and the... The First Boer War also known as the First Anglo-Boer War or the Transvaal War, was fought from December 16, 1880 until March 23, 1881. ... William Ewart Gladstone (29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British Liberal Party statesman and Prime Minister (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). ... This article is about the historic Liberal Party. ... March 23 is the 82nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (83rd in leap years). ... Year 1881 (MDCCCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar). ... Combatants United Kingdom Australia New Zealand Canada Cape Colony Orange Free State South African Republic Commanders Redvers Buller Frederick Roberts Herbert Kitchener Paul Kruger Martinus Steyn Louis Botha Christiaan de Wet Casualties 22,000 6,500 Civilians killed [mainly Boers]: 24,000+ The Second Boer War, commonly referred to as... Flag of the Orange Free State Capital Bloemfontein Language(s) Afrikaans, English Religion Dutch Reformed Church Government Republic President  - 1854 - 1855 Josias P. Hoffman  - 1855 - 1859 Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff  - 1859 - 1863 Marthinus Wessel Pretorius (also President of the South African Republic from 1857 to 1871). ...

The 1898 Fashoda Incident

Main article: Fashoda Incident

The 1898 Fashoda Incident was one of the most crucial conflicts on Europe's way of consolidating holdings in the continent. It brought Britain and France to the verge of war but ended in a major strategic victory for Britain, and provided the basis for the 1904 Entente Cordiale between the two rival countries. It stemmed from battles over control of the Nile headwaters, which caused Britain to expand in the Sudan. The Fashoda Incident (1898) was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. ... The Entente Cordiale (French for friendly understanding) is a series of agreements signed on April 8, 1904, between the United Kingdom and France. ...

Jules Ferry, French Republican who, as prime minister, directed the negotiations which led to the establishment of a protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the December 17, 1885 treaty for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and organized the conquest of Indochina. He resigned after the 1885 Tonkin incident.

The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a territory covering modern day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted link between the Niger River and the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin. Sudan (which in those days included modern day Uganda) was obviously key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This 'red line' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner (the British colonial minister in South Africa), Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire linking by rail the Suez Canal to the mineral-rich Southern part of the continent. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling East African empire. Image File history File links Julesferry. ... Image File history File links Julesferry. ... Jules Ferry, French statesman Jules François Camille Ferry (April 5, 1832 – March 17, 1893) was a French statesman. ... Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on Liberty and ruled by the people. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... December 17 is the 351st day of the year (352nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia. ... Combatants France Qing Dynasty Black Flag Army Annam Strength 15,000 to 20,000 soldiers (including Spanish and Filipino volunteers) 25,000 to 35,000 soldiers (from the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang and Yunnan) Casualties 2,100 killed or wounded 10,000 killed or wounded The 1884 Battle...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... See also Sahel, Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. ... Map of Niger River with Niger River basin in green. ... Categories: Africa geography stubs | Southern Africa ...  Eastern Africa (UN subregion)  East African Community  Central African Federation (defunct)  geographic, including above East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easternmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. ... Cecil Rhodes. ... Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner (23 March 1854 _ 13 May 1925), was British statesman and colonial administrator. ... Flag of Tanganyika Tanganyika was an East African republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, named after Lake Tanganyika, which formed its western border. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz...

If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes' dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. City motto: Spes Bona (Latin: Good Hope) Location of the City of Cape Town in Western Cape Province Province Western Cape Mayor Helen Zille Area  - % water 2,499 km² N/A Population  - Total (2004)  - Density Not ranked 2,893,251 1,158/km² Established 1652 Time zone SAST (UTC+2... Nickname: Al Qahirah (The Triumphant City) Cairos location in Egypt Coordinates: Governor Dr. Abdul Azim Wazir Area    - City 210 km²  - Metro 1,492 km² Population (2005)  - City 7,438,376  - Density 35,420/km²  - Urban 10,834,495  - Metro 15,200,000 Time zone EET (UTC+2)  - Summer (DST... (City of Dakar, divided into 19 communes darrondissement) City proper (commune) Région Dakar Département Dakar Mayor Pape Diop (PDS) (since 2002) Area 82. ... Nations of the Horn of Africa. ... The Fashoda Incident (1898) was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. ... The Cape of Good Hope; looking towards the west, from the coastal cliffs above Cape Point. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ...

A French force under Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff, and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899 the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence. Colonel Marchand Major Jean-Baptiste Marchand (1863-1934) was a French emissary in Africa. ... Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum PC, KBE, KCB, ADC ( June 24, 1850 - June 5, 1916) was a British Field Marshal and statesman. ... 1892 (MDCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1899 (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The Congo River (formerly known as some River) is the largest river in Western Central Africa. ...

The Moroccan crisis

Main articles: First Moroccan Crisis and Second Moroccan Crisis

Although the 1884-85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the scramble for Africa, it hadn't weakened the rival imperialisms. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the UK on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the 1904 Entente cordiale, which reversed the influence of the various European powers. As a result, the new German power decided to test the solidity of the influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield. The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) refers to the international crisis over the colonial status of Morocco between March 1905 and May 1906. ... The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of a German warship to the Moroccan port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. ...

Thus, on March 31, 1905, the Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech bolstered French nationalism and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up to the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906. March 31 is the 90th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (91st in Leap years), with 275 days remaining. ... 1905 (MCMV) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... German Emperor Wilhelm (born Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht, Prince of Prussia 27 January 1859–4 June 1941), was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia (de: Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen), ruling from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. ... Tangier (in Berber and Arabic Tanja, in Spanish Tánger and in French Tanger) is a city of northern Morocco with a population of 350,000, or 550,000 including suburbs. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Théophile Delcassé, French diplomat and statesman Théophile Delcassé (March 1, 1852 - February 22, 1923) was a French statesman. ... Maurice Rouvier, French statesman Maurice Rouvier (April 17, 1842 - June 7, 1911) was a French statesman. ...

Human Zoo (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.

The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria-Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the U.S. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on May 31, 1906, where France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas. Image File history File links Völkerschau_(Human_Zoo)_Stuttgart1928. ... Image File history File links Völkerschau_(Human_Zoo)_Stuttgart1928. ... Human Zoo (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 A Human zoo (also called ethnological expositions or Negro Villages) was a 19th and 20th century public exhibit of human beings usually in their natural or primitive state. ... Stuttgart [], located in southern Germany, is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg with a population of approximately 590,000 (as of September 2005) in the city and around 3 million in the metropolitan area. ... The Algeciras Conference of 1906 took place in Algeciras, Spain, and lasted from January 16 to April 7. ... Austria-Hungary, also known as the Dual monarchy (or: the k. ... May 31 is the 151st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (152nd in leap years), with 214 days remaining. ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ...

However, five years later, the second Moroccan crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther, to the port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain's naval supremacy — the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic. The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. ... The Panther was the gun-boat that Germany deployed to the Moroccan port of Agadir, during the Second Moroccan Crisis (also called the Tangier Crisis) of 1911. ... Agadir (Arabic: أكادير, Berber (Amazigh): ) is a city in southwest Morocco, capital of the Souss-Massa-Dra region. ... July 1 is the 182nd day of the year (183rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 183 days remaining. ... 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). ... The British Royal Navy does not have a well-defined moment of formation; it started out as a motley assortment of Kings ships during the Middle Ages, assembled only as needed and then dispersed, began to take shape as a standing navy during the 16th century, and became a...

The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algerisas Conference. In November 1911, a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent. ... Location of French Equatorial Africa. ... The Republic of the Congo, also known as Middle Congo, Congo-Brazzaville, and Congo (but not to be confused with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, which was also at one time known as the Republic of the Congo), is a former French colony of west-central Africa. ...

France subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (March 30, 1912), ending what remained of the country's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions which would culminate in World War I. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (90th in a leap year). ... 1912 (MCMXII) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday in the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

The colonial encounter

The production of cash crops

Capitalism, an economic system in which capital, or wealth, is put to work to produce more capital, revolutionized traditional economies, inducing social changes and political consequences that revolutionized African and Asian societies. Maximizing production and minimizing cost did not necessarily coincide with traditional, seasonal patterns of agricultural production. The ethic of wage productivity was thus, in many respects, a new concept to supposedly 'idle natives' merely accustomed to older patterns of production. Balanced, subsistence-based economies shifted to specialization and accumulation of surpluses. Tribal states or empires organized along precarious, unwritten cultural traditions also shifted to a division of labor based on legal protection of land and labor — once inalienable, but now commodities to be bought, sold, or traded. For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ...

The colonial consciousness and colonial exhibitions

Pygmies and a European explorer. Some pygmies would be exposed in human zoos, such as Ota Benga displayed by eugenicist Madison Grant in the Bronx Zoo.

Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1382x2112, 1273 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Pygmy Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1382x2112, 1273 KB) File links The following pages link to this file: Pygmy Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Generally speaking, pygmy (from Greek pygmaios, fist sized, a kind of dwarf in Greek mythology) can refer to any human or animal of unusually small size, for example, the pygmy hippopotamus. ... Human Zoo (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 A Human zoo (also called ethnological expositions or Negro Villages) was a 19th and 20th century public exhibit of human beings usually in their natural or primitive state. ... Ota Benga in 1904, showing his sharpened teeth. ... The word eugenics (from the Greek εὐγενής, for well-born) was coined in 1883 by Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, to refer to the study and use of selective breeding (of animals or humans) to improve a species over generations, specifically... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... This article is about the zoo, for the tv series see The Bronx Zoo (TV). ...

The "colonial lobby"

In its early stages, imperialism was mainly the act of individual explorers and some adventurous merchantmen. The metropoles were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensives adventures carried out abroad, and various important political leaders opposed themselves to the colonization in its first years. Thus, William Gladstone (Liberal), British premier between 1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894, opposed it. However, during his second ministry, he could not resist the colonial lobby, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism" (Hobson^[5]). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonization was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges" mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace-Lorraine region which had been annexed by the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt's classic The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this unlimited expansion of national sovereignty on oversea territories contradicted the unity of the nation-state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonized people, as they may be considered as "citizens" of the nation-state, and the imperialist drives to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some rare voices in the metropoles opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration, left to itself and described in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) — contemporary of Kipling's The White Man's Burden — or in Céline's Journey to the End of the Night (1932). The Metropole was the name given to the English metropolitan center of the British Empire, i. ... William Ewart Gladstone (29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British Liberal Party statesman and Prime Minister (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). ... This article is about the historic Liberal Party. ... Class conflict is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different social classes and the underlying tensions or antagonisms which exist in society. ... The Long Depression (1873 – 1896) was a depression that affected much of the world from the early 1870s until the mid-1890s, contemporary of the Second Industrial Revolution. ... Jingoism is a term describing chauvinistic patriotism, usually with a hawkish political stance. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... John Atkinson Hobson (July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) was an English economist and imperial critic, widely popular as a lecturer and writer. ... The Radical-Socialist Party (Parti Républicain, Radical et Radical-Socialiste, more commonly called Parti Radical-Socialiste - Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party), was a major French political party of the early to mid 20th century, originally considered radical due to its anti-clericalism, a main trait of republicans during... Georges Clemenceau Georges Clemenceau[1] (Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendée, 28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman, physician and journalist. ... The Vosges mountains are range of mountains in central-western Europe, stretching along the west side of the Rhine valley in a NNE direction, from Basel to Mainz, for a distance of 250 km (150 miles). ... Revanchism (from French revanche, revenge) is a term used since the 1870s to describe political campaigns to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country during previous wars and strifes, sometimes quite distant in time. ... Imperial Province of Elsaß-Lothringen Alsace-Lorraine (French: Alsace-Lorraine; German: Elsaß-Lothringen) was a territory that used to be disputed between France and Germany, but is currently a part of France and has been since World War II. The territory, composed of Alsace and parts of Lorraine, belonged to... The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed May 10, 1871, at theend of the Franco-Prussian War. ... Jules Ferry, French statesman Jules François Camille Ferry (April 5, 1832 – March 17, 1893) was a French statesman. ... Combatants France Qing Dynasty Black Flag Army Annam Strength 15,000 to 20,000 soldiers (including Spanish and Filipino volunteers) 25,000 to 35,000 soldiers (from the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang and Yunnan) Casualties 2,100 killed or wounded 10,000 killed or wounded The 1884 Battle... Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a Jewish-German (later American) political theorist. ... The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt, dedicated to her husband Heinrich Blücher. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e. ... The term nation-state, while often used interchangeably with the terms unitary state and independent state, refers properly to the parallel occurence of a state and a nation. ... Citizenship is membership in a political community (originally a city but now usually a country) and carries with it rights to political participation; a person having such membership is a citizen. ... In comparative religion, a universalist religion is one that holds itself true for all people; it thus allows all to join, regardless of ethnicity. ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ... The term exploitation may carry two distinct meanings: The act of utilizing something for any purpose. ... Joseph Conrad. ... Heart of Darkness is a novella by Joseph Conrad. ... Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was a British author and poet, born in India, and best known today for his childrens books, including The Jungle Book (1894), The Second Jungle Book (1895), Just So Stories (1902), and Puck of Pooks Hill (1906); his novel... The white mans burden - a satiric take This advertisement for soap uses the theme of the White Mans Burden, encouraging white people to teach cleanliness to members of other races. ... Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (May 27, 1894 – July 1, 1961) was a French writer and physician who wrote under the nom de plume Céline. // Life He was born Louis-Ferdinand Destouches at Courbevoie in the Seine département (now Hauts-de-Seine). ... Journey to the End of the Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) is the first novel of Louis-Ferdinand Céline. ...

Thus, colonial lobbies were progressively set up to legitimize the Scramble for Africa and other expensives oversea adventures. In Germany, in France, in Britain, the bourgeoisie began to claim strong oversea policies to insure the market's growth. In 1916, Lenin would publish his famous Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism to explain this phenomenon. Even in lesser powers, voices like Corradini began to claim a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations", bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism. It has been suggested that Interest representation: Academic overview be merged into this article or section. ... Vladimir Ilyich Lenin ( Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин  listen?), original surname Ulyanov (Улья́нов) ( April 22 (April 10 ( O.S.)), 1870 – January 21, 1924), was a... Enrico Corradini (1865, near Montelupo Fiorentino—1931, Rome) was an Italian novelist, essayist, journalist, and nationalist political figure. ... Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Militarism or militarist ideology is the doctrinal view of a society as being best served (or more efficient) when it is governed or guided by concepts embodied in the culture, doctrine, system, or people of the military. ... Fascism is a political ideology and mass movement that seeks to place the nation, defined in exclusive biological, cultural, and/or historical terms, above all other sources of loyalty, and to create a mobilized national community. ...

Colonial propaganda and jingoism

However, by the end of World War I, the colonized empires had become very popular almost everywhere: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although many of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientifics. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural" populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London and Berlin, these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos" could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York, Warsaw, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (discovered by René Caillé, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, who thus won the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894... Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.^[6] Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz... Public Opinion is a book on media and democracy by Walter Lippmann. ... The Colonial Exhibitions were supposed to bolster popular support for the various colonial empires. ... An Australian anti-conscription propaganda poster from World War One Propaganda is a type of message aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of people. ... Indigenous peoples are: Peoples living in an area prior to colonization by a state Peoples living in an area within a nation-state, prior to the formation of a nation-state, but who do not identify with the dominant nation. ... Giraffes in Sydneys Taronga Zoo Zoo redirects here. ... The Sami people (also Sámi, Saami, Lapps and Laplanders) are the indigenous people of Sápmi, which encompasses parts of northern Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. ... The Nubians are an ethnic group in Egypt and Sudan. ... // Human zoos (also called ethnological expositions or negro villages) were common until at least the 1930s. ... For other uses, see Tuareg (disambiguation). ... The city of Timbuktu ( Archaic English: Timbuctoo, Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu, French: Tombouctou) is a city in Mali, West Africa. ... René Caillié René Caillié (September 19, 1799 - May 17, 1838) was a French explorer, and the first European to return alive from the town of Timbuktu. ... 1828 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female military regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey (now Benin) which lasted until end of the 19th century. ... Abomey is a town in Benin, formerly the capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey. ... Behanzin in 1894 Behanzin (d. ... The Galibi were a Cariban-speaking people who lived in the Lesser Antilles and northern South America at the time of European settlement. ...

English-edition cover of Hergé's Tintin in the Congo (1930-31). Le Petit Vingtième magazine staged a triumphant return of "Tintin" and "Snowy" to Brussels on July 9, 1931. They were accompanied by ten Congolese and met by Hergé himself.

Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two "ethnological spectacles", presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximatively thirty "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation.^[7] "Negro villages" would be presented in Paris' 1878 and 1879 World's Fair; the 1900 World's Fair presented the famous diorama "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes.^[8] Nomadic "Senegalese villages" were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population. Image File history File links English-edition cover of Tintin in the Congo. ... Image File history File links English-edition cover of Tintin in the Congo. ... Georges Remi (May 22, 1907 – March 3, 1983), better known by the pen name Hergé, was a Belgian comics writer and artist. ... English-edition cover Tintin in the Congo (Tintin au Congo) is one of a series of classic comic-strip albums, written and illustrated by Belgian writer and illustrator Hergé, featuring young reporter Tintin as a hero. ... Nickname: The Capital Of Europe, Comic City City of a 100 Museums[] Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium Coordinates: Country Belgium Region Brussels-Capital Region Founded 979 Founded (Region) June 18, 1989  - Mayor (Municipality) Freddy Thielemans Area    - City 162 (Region) km²  (62. ... July 9 is the 190th day of the year (191st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 175 days remaining. ... Year 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link is to a full 1931 calendar). ... For other uses, see Inuit (disambiguation). ... A diorama is a partially three dimensional model of a landscape typically showing historical events, nature scenes, cityscapes, etc. ...

In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed pigmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link" in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans. Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... Generally speaking, pygmy (from Greek pygmaios, fist sized, a kind of dwarf in Greek mythology) can refer to any human or animal of unusually small size, for example, the pygmy hippopotamus. ... Ota Benga in 1904, showing his sharpened teeth. ... This article is about the zoo, for the tv series see The Bronx Zoo (TV). ... Scientific racism is any publication or propaganda with the veneer of science which was fabricated to support a racist paradigm. ... The word eugenics (from the Greek εὐγενής, for well-born) was coined in 1883 by Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, to refer to the study and use of selective breeding (of animals or humans) to improve a species over generations, specifically... Charles Darwin Darwinism is a term for the underlying theory in those ideas of Charles Darwin concerning evolution and natural selection. ...

Such colonial exhibitions, which include the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris Exposition coloniale, were doubtlessly a key element of the colonisation project and legitimized the ruthless Scramble for Africa, in the same way that the popular comic-strip The Adventures of Tintin, full of clichés, were obviously carrier of an ethnocentric and racist ideology which was the condition of the masses' consent to the imperialist phenomenon. Hergé's work attained summits with Tintin in the Congo (1930-31) or The Broken Ear (1935). The British Empire Exhibition was held at Wembley, London in 1924. ... The main cast of the series. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Ethnocentricity is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own culture. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling Hate speech · Hate crime Lynching · Gay bashing Genocide · Holocaust Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing Pogrom · Race war Religious persecution Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism White/Black supremacy Hate groups · Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism Womens/Universal suffrage Civil rights · Gay rights Childrens rights · Youth rights Policies Discriminatory... An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Georges Remi (May 22, 1907 – March 3, 1983), better known by the pen name Hergé, was a Belgian comics writer and artist. ... English-edition cover Tintin in the Congo (Tintin au Congo) is one of a series of classic comic-strip albums, written and illustrated by Belgian writer and illustrator Hergé, featuring young reporter Tintin as a hero. ... The Broken Ear (LOreille cassée) is one of the The Adventures of Tintin, a series of classic comic-strip albums, written and illustrated by Belgian writer and illustrator Hergé, featuring young reporter Tintin as a hero. ...

While comic-strips played the same role as westerns to legitimize the Indian Wars in the United States, colonial exhibitions were both popular and scientific, being an interface between the crowds and serious scientific research. Thus, anthropologists such as Madison Grant or Alexis Carrel built their pseudo-scientific racism, inspired by Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-55). Human zoos provided both a real-size laboratory for these racial hypothesis and a demonstration of their validity: by labelling Ota Benga as the "missing link" between apes and Europeans, as was done in the Bronx Zoo, social Darwinism and the pseudo-hierarchy of races, grounded in the biologization of the notion of "race", were simultaneously "proved", and the layman could observe this "scientific truth". i like western films The Western is an American genre in literature and film. ... Combatants Native Americans Various (see text) Indian Wars is the name used by historians in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between the United States and Native American peoples (Indians) of North America. ... See Anthropology. ... Madison Grant in the early 1920s. ... Alexis Carrel Alexis Carrel (June 28, 1873 – November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist. ... Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 - October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat who became famous for advocating White Supremacy and developing the racialist theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ... An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is an early and significant work defining the concept of Scientific racism and White supremacy. ... Michael Faraday, 19th century physicist and chemist, in his lab. ... Ota Benga in 1904, showing his sharpened teeth. ... Families Hylobatidae Hominidae Apes are the members of the Hominoidea superfamily of primates, including humans. ... World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven traditional continents of Earth; the term continent here referring to a cultural and political distinction, rather than a physiographic one, thus leading to various perspectives about Europes precise borders. ... Social Darwinism in the most basic form is the idea that biological ideas can be extended and applied to the social realm. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Anthropology, the daughter of colonisation, participated in this so-called scientific racism based on social Darwinism by supporting, along with social positivism and scientism, the claims of the superiority of the Western civilization over "primitive cultures". However, the discovery of ancient cultures would dialectically lead anthropology to criticize itself and revalue the importance of foreign cultures. Thus, the 1897 Punitive Expedition led by the British Admiral Harry Rawson captured, burned, and looted the city of Benin, incidentally bringing to an end the highly sophisticated West African Kingdom of Benin. However, the sack of Benin distributed the famous Benin bronzes and other works of art into the European art market, as the British Admiralty auctioned off the confiscated patrimony to defray costs of the Expedition. Most of the great Benin bronzes went first to purchasers in Germany, though a sizable group remain in the British Museum. The Benin bronzes then catalyzed the beginnings of a long reassessment of the value of West African culture, which had strong influences on the formation of modernism. Initiation rite of the Yao people of Malawi Anthropology (from the Greek word , man or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Social Darwinism in the most basic form is the idea that biological ideas can be extended and applied to the social realm. ... This article describes the term positivism as used in social sciences, especially within the science of sociology. ... Scientism is an ideology which holds that science has primacy over other interpretations of life (e. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Broadly speaking, a dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is an exchange of propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses) resulting in a disagreement. ... The Punitive Expedition of 1897 was a military excursion by a British force of 1,200 under Admiral Sir Harry Rawson that captured, burned, and looted the city of Benin, incidentally bringing to an end the highly sophisticated West African Kingdom of Benin. ... Admiral Sir Harry Holdsworth Rawson, KCB (1843-1910), is chiefly remembered now for having overseen the British Punitive Expedition of 1897 that burned and looted the city of Benin, now in Nigeria. ...  Western Africa (UN subregion)  Maghreb West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. ... --168. ... The Benin Bronzes are a collection of more than 1,000 brass plaques from the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin. ... For the international law of the sea, see Admiralty law. ... The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2000 to become the Great Court, with a tessellated glass roof by Buro Happold and Foster and Partners surrounding the original Reading Room. ... Modernism is a trend of thought which affirms the power of human beings to make, improve, deconstruct and reshape their built and designed environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. ...

Several contemporary studies have thus focused on the construction of the racist discourse in the 19th century and its propaganda as a precondition of the colonization project and of the Scramble of Africa, made with total disconcern for the local population, as examplified by Stanley, according to whom "the savage only respects force, power, boldness, and decision." Anthropology, which was related to criminology, thrived on these explorations, as had geography before them and ethnology — which, along with Claude Lévi-Strauss' studies, would theorize the ethnocentric illusion — afterwards. According to several historians, the formulation of this racist discourse and practices would also be a precondition of "state racism" (Michel Foucault) as incarnated by the Holocaust (see also Olivier LeCour Grandmaison's description of the conquest of Algeria and Sven Lindqvist, as well as Hannah Arendt). The invention of concentration camps during the Second Boer War would also be an innovation used by the Third Reich. Sir Henry Morton Stanley (also known as Bula Matari (Breaker of Rocks) in Congo), born John Rowlands (January 28, 1841 – May 10, 1904), was a 19th-century Welsh-born American journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and his search for David Livingstone. ... Savage has various meanings. ... Template:Criminologies Criminology is the scientific study of crime as an individual and social phenomenon. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ... Claude Lévi-Strauss Claude Lévi-Strauss (IPA pronunciation ); born November 28, 1908) is a Jewish-French anthropologist who developed structuralism as a method of understanding human society and culture. ... State racism may have two distinct meanings: A type of institutional racism promoted by a government. ... Michel Foucault (IPA pronunciation: ; English-speakers pronunciation varies) (October 15, 1926 – June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher and historian. ... Concentration camp inmates during the Holocaust The Holocaust was Nazi Germanys systematic genocide (ethnic cleansing) of various ethnic, religious, national, and secular groups during World War II. Early elements include the Kristallnacht pogrom and the T-4 Euthanasia Program established by Hitler that killed some 200,000 people. ... Olivier LeCour Grandmaison (September 19, 1960, Paris) is a French historian. ... // Most of Frances actions in Algeria, not least the invasion of Algiers, were propelled by contradictory impulses. ... Sven Lindqvist (born April 28, 1932) is a Swedish author and professor. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ...

The extermination of the Namaka and the Herero

Main article: Herero and Namaka genocide

A 19th century caricature of the "Hottentot Venus". Saartje Baartman, a Khoisan woman, was exhibited naked and in a cage as a sideshow attraction]in England, fueling the African Association's indignation. After her death, her genitals were dissected and cast in wax. Nelson Mandela formally requested France to return her remains, which had been kept at the Parisian Musée de l'Homme until 1974.

Surviving Herero, emaciated, after their escape through the Omaheke desert.

In 1985, the United Nations' Whitaker Report recognized Germany's turn of the century attempt to exterminate the Herero and Namaqua peoples of South-West Africa as one of the earliest attempts at genocide in the 20th century. In total, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 percent of the total Namaqua population) were killed between 1904 and 1907. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of wells for the Herero and Namaqua population who were trapped in the Namib Desert. Surviving Herero after the escape through the arid desert of Omaheke. ... Saartje Baartman This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Saartje Baartman This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... A common caricature of Charles Darwin focuses on his beard, eyebrows, and baldness, while often giving him the features of an ape or monkey. ... Saartjie Baartman (1789-1815) was the most famous of at least two Hottentot women who were exhibited as sideshow attractions in 19th century Europe under the name Hottentot Venus . ... A caricature of Baartman drawn in the early 19th century Saartjie Baartman (1789-1815) was the most famous of at least two Khoikhoi women who were exhibited as sideshow attractions in 19th century Europe under the name Hottentot Venus. ... The distribution of the Khoi-San language family can be seen in this map of African language families. ... Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (IPA )) (born July 18, 1918) was the first President of South Africa to be elected in fully-representative democratic elections. ... The Musée de lHomme (French for Museum of Man) was created in 1937 by Paul Rivet, for the event of the Worlds Fair. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (933x612, 159 KB) Summary Surviving Herero after the escape through the arid desert of Omaheke. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (933x612, 159 KB) Summary Surviving Herero after the escape through the arid desert of Omaheke. ... A group of Herero women. ... Area: 84,732 km² (32,715 mi²) Population: 67,496 (2001), 52,735 (1991) Population density 0. ... 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. ... A group of Herero women. ... Nama (in older sourses also Namaqua) are a pastoral people of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana speaking the Nama language which belongs to the Khoe-Kwadi language family (previously known as Central Khoisan). ... South-West Africa is the former name (1884-1990) of Namibia under German (as German South-West Africa, Deutsch Süd-West Afrika) and (from 1915) South African administration when it was conquered from the Germans during World War I. Following the war, the Treaty of Versailles declared the territory... Look up Genocide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Dune 7, the highest sand dune in the world (ca. ...

Conclusions

During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the century, Europe added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km²) — one-fifth of the land area of the globe — to its overseas colonial possessions ^{[citation needed]}. Europe's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el-Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under its control, to 15% for France, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and only 1% for Italy ^{[citation needed]}. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa", reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely-populated Sahara. This region of Western Sahara makes up the northern third of the country. ... Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled by Spain, created from the Spanish territories of Rio de Oro and La Aguera in 1924. ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Year 1914 (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Location of French West Africa French West Africa (French: ) was a federation of eight French territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte dIvoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin). ...

The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies" bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimize the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crisis, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into the war. Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilize to assist its slav brothers in Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria-Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realize the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade France and quickly knock her out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Great Britain into the war against Germany, Austria-Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become the First World War. Moreover, using the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino-Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually the Second World War. Chauvinism is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. ... Jingoism is a term describing chauvinistic patriotism, usually with a hawkish political stance. ... Year 1914 (MCMXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The German General Staff or Großer Generalstab was the most important German weapon for nearly two centuries. ... Helmuth von Moltke Chief of the General Staff Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke (May 25, 1848–June 18, 1916), also known as Moltke the Younger, was a nephew of Field Marshal Count Moltke and served as the Chief of the German General Staff from 1906 to 1914. ... Alfred Graf von Schlieffen The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staffs overall strategic plan for victory on the Western Front against France, and was executed to near victory in the first month of World War I; however, a French counterattack on the outskirts of Paris, the Battle of... U-boat is also a nickname for some diesel locomotives built by GE; see List of GE locomotives October 1939. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... Combatants Republic of China Empire of Japan Commanders Chiang Kai-shek, Mao Tse-Tung, Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang, Zhu De, He Yingqin Hideki Tojo, Matsui Iwane, Jiro Minami, Kesago Nakajima, Toshizo Nishio, Yasuji Okamura. ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ...

African colonies listed by colonizing power

Belgium

Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of Congo)

The Congo Free State was a kingdom privately and controversially owned by King Leopold II of Belgium that included the entire area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ... Capital Léopoldville Government Protectorate Created 1908 Dissolved 1960 Official language(s) French, Dutch The Belgian Congo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) between King Léopold IIs formal relinquishment of personal control over the state to Belgium on 15 November 1908...

France

Algeria

Tunisia

Morocco

French West Africa

Mauritania

Senegal

French Sudan (now Mali)

Guinea

Côte d'Ivoire

Niger

Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)

Dahomey (now Benin).

French Equatorial Africa

Gabon

Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo)

Oubangi-Chari (now the Central African Republic)

Chad

French Somaliland (now Djibouti)

Madagascar

Comoros

Location of French West Africa French West Africa (French: ) was a federation of eight French territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte dIvoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin). ... French Sudan (Fr. ... Map showing the Volta river in Upper Volta Upper Volta (French: ) was the name of the African country now called Burkina Faso. ... Dahomey was a kingdom in Africa, situated in what is now the nation of Benin. ... Location of French Equatorial Africa. ... The Republic of the Congo, also known as Middle Congo, Congo-Brazzaville, and Congo (but not to be confused with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, which was also at one time known as the Republic of the Congo), is a former French colony of west-central Africa. ... The Republic of Djibouti (جيبوتي) is a country in eastern Africa, located in the Horn of Africa. ...

Germany

German Kamerun

German East Africa (now Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanzania)

German South-West Africa (now Namibia)

German Togoland

The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central Africa. ... German East Africa (German: Deutsch-Ostafrika) was Germanys colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanganyika, the mainland part of present Tanzania. ... Flag of German South West Africa German South-West Africa (German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915, when it was taken over by South Africa and administered as South-West Africa, finally becoming Namibia in 1990. ... Togoland was a German protectorate in West Africa. ...

Italy

Italian North Africa (now Libya)

Eritrea

Italian Somaliland (now Somalia)

Italian North Africa was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from 1911 until World War II, which later became independent as Libya. ... Italian Somaliland was an Italian colony that lasted, apart from a brief interlude of British rule, from the late 19th century until 1960 in the territory of the modern-day East African nation of Somalia. ...

Portugal

Angola

Portuguese Cabinda

Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique)

Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau)

Cape Verde Islands

São Tomé and Príncipe

Cabinda is a territory, ocupied by Angola. ... Mozambique is a country in Southern Africa, bordering South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. ... Portuguese Guinea was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974. ...

Spain

Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara, composed of:)

Río de Oro

Saguia el-Hamra

Spanish Morocco

Ceuta

Melilla

Tarfaya Strip

Ifni

Rio Muni (now part of Equatorial Guinea)

Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled by Spain, created from the Spanish territories of Rio de Oro and La Aguera in 1924. ... Río de Oro (Spanish for Gold River, Arabic: wādÄ«-ð-ðahab, often transliterated as Oued Edhahab), is, with Saguia el-Hamra, one of the two territories that formed the Spanish province of Spanish Sahara after 1969. ... This region of Western Sahara makes up the northern third of the country. ... Spanish Morocco, was the area of Morocco ruled by Spain from up to 1956, when France and Spain recognised Moroccan independence. ... Area  â€“ Total   28 km² Population  â€“ Total (2005)  â€“ Density  75,276  2688. ... Area  â€“ Total    20 km² (8 mi²) Population  â€“ Total (2005)  â€“ Density  65,488  3274. ... The southernmost region in Morocco, the Tarfaya Strip was one of the last holdings in current-day Morocco ceeded by the Spanish before Moroccan integration. ... Ifni was a Spanish province on the African coast in what is now Morocco, south of Agadir and across from the Canary Islands. ... Rio Muni (called Mbini in Fang), mainland geographical region of Equatorial Guinea, covering 26,000 km². Rio Muni was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1778. ...

Great Britain

The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway. Cecil Rhodes. ... Rhodes: Cape to Cairo The Cape-Cairo Railway is an uncompleted project to cross Africa from south to north by rail. ...

Egypt

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (now Sudan)

British East Africa

Kenya

Uganda

British Somaliland

Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)

Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)

Bechuanaland (now Botswana)

Orange Free State

British South Africa

The Gambia

Sierra Leone

Nigeria

British Gold Coast (now Ghana)

Nyasaland (now Malawi)

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was the name of Sudan between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of the United Kingdom and Egypt. ... British East Africa was a British protectorate in East Africa, covering generally the area of present-day Kenya and lasting from 1890 to 1920, when it became the colony of Kenya. ... The British Somaliland was a British protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa, and later part of Somalia and presently the unrecognized Republic of Somaliland. ... Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British colony situated immediately to the north of South Africa, known today as Zimbabwe. ... Flag of Northern Rhodesia. ... The Bechuanaland Protectorate (BP) was a protectorate established in 1885 by Britain in the area of what is now Botswana. ... Flag of the Orange Free State Capital Bloemfontein Language(s) Afrikaans, English Religion Dutch Reformed Church Government Republic President  - 1854 - 1855 Josias P. Hoffman  - 1855 - 1859 Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff  - 1859 - 1863 Marthinus Wessel Pretorius (also President of the South African Republic from 1857 to 1871). ... National motto: Ex Unitate Vires (Latin: From Unity, strength} Official languages Afrikaans, Dutch and English. ... The Republic of Ghana is a nation of Africa, specifically West Africa within Côte dIvoire to the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo to the east, and borders the Gulf of Guinea to its south. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ...

Independent states

Liberia, founded by the United States' American Colonization Society in 1847

Ethiopia (Abyssinia), had its borders re-drawn with Italian Eritrea and French Somaliland (modern Djibouti), briefly occupied by Italy from 1936-41 during World War II's Abyssinia Crisis

To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom France Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Charles de Gaulle Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian... The Abyssinia Crisis was a pre-WW2 diplomatic crisis originating in the conflict between Italy and Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia). ...

References

Sarah Gertrude Millin, born Sarah Gertrude Liebson (1889 - 1968) was a Lithuania-born South African writer. ... Alfred von Tirpitz Alfred von Tirpitz (March 19, 1849 – March 6, 1930) was a German Admiral, Minister of State and Commander of the Kaiserliche Marine in World War I from 1914 until 1916. ... Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a Jewish-German (later American) political theorist. ... The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt, dedicated to her husband Heinrich Blücher. ... ... Enrico Corradini (1865, near Montelupo Fiorentino—1931, Rome) was an Italian novelist, essayist, journalist, and nationalist political figure. ... John Atkinson Hobson (July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) was an English economist and imperial critic, widely popular as a lecturer and writer. ... Imperialism was a political-economic discourse written by John A. Hobson in 1902. ... The monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed Le Diplo by its French readers) offers analysis and opinion on politics, culture, and current affairs. ...

Further reading

• Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951, second section on imperialism) ISBN 0-15-670153-7
• Sections of The Age of Empire Eric Hobsbawm
• Lindqvist, Sven. Exterminate All the Brutes (Utrota varenda jävel, 1992)
• Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa. Abacus, 1991 ISBN 0-349-10449-2
• Maria Petringa. Brazza, A Life for Africa. AuthorHouse, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0
• Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam 1973.

Primm, JT. "Causes/Effects of Imperialism" DK Publications, 1999. Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a Jewish-German (later American) political theorist. ... The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt, dedicated to her husband Heinrich Blücher. ... Dr Eric John Blair Hobsbawm CH (born June 9, 1917) is a British Marxist historian and author. ... Sven Lindqvist (born April 28, 1932) is a Swedish author and professor. ... Thomas Francis Dermot Pakenham, 8th Earl of Longford (born 14 August 1933), known simply as Thomas Pakenham, is an Anglo-Irish historian and arborist who has authored several prize winning books on the diverse subjects of Victorian and post-Victorian British history and trees. ... The Scramble for Africa: The White Mans Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 is a comprehensive but popular history of the Scramble for Africa by Thomas Pakenham. ...

See also

• Chronology of colonialism
• Colonialism
• Decolonization of Africa
• Human Zoo
• Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization
• Pseudo-scientifical racial theories
• White African
• World War I
• Congo Reform Association

The term New Imperialism refers to the policy and ideology of imperial colonial expansion adopted by Europes powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I (c. ... The Rise of the New Imperialism overlaps with the Pax Britannica period (1815-1870). ... Western imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. ... // The accumulation theory The accumulation theory, conceived largely by J.A. Hobson and later Lenin, centres on the accumulation of surplus capital during the Second Industrial Revolution. ... This is a non-exhaustive chronology of colonialism-related events, which may recensed political events, cultural events, as well as important global events which have influenced the colonization and the decolonization. ... Pith helmet of the Second French Empire. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Human Zoo (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928 A Human zoo (also called ethnological expositions or Negro Villages) was a 19th and 20th century public exhibit of human beings usually in their natural or primitive state. ... Given that colonialism involves the rule or taking of territory of one people by another and without their consent, it is a highly emotive subject. ... Scientific racism is racist propaganda disguised as science. ... White African people are descendants of Europeans who settled in the continent of Africa under colonial rule. ... Combatants Allied Powers: Russian Empire France British Empire Italy United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary German Empire Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Commanders Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Georges Clemenceau Joseph Joffre Ferdinand Foch Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Armando Diaz Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Franz... The Congo Reform Association exposed gross and rampant abuses of labor in King Leopold II of Belgiums Congo Free State, leading to the annexation of Congo by Belgium in 1908. ...

External links

• Belgium exhumes its colonial demons