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A thermal power station comprises all of the equipment and systems required to produce electricity by using a steam generating boiler fired with fossil fuels or biofuels to drive an electrical generator. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of energy, like nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy or heat energy (derived from the combustion of fuels) into electrical energy. However, power plant is the most common term in the United States, while power station prevails in many Commonwealth countries and especially in the United Kingdom. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 443 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Thermal power station ...
Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1280x960, 443 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Thermal power station ...
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Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (fuel oil or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals[1] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earths crust over hundreds of millions of years[2]. The theory that hydrocarbons were formed from these...
This article is about machines that produce electricity. ...
Nuclear energy is energy released from the atomic nucleus. ...
Potential energy (U, or Ep), a kind of scalar potential, is energy by virtue of matter being able to move to a lower-energy state, releasing energy in some form. ...
For other uses, see Heat (disambiguation) In physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature. ...
A combustion reaction taking place in a igniting match Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames. ...
For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ...
The Commonwealth of Nations as of 2006 Headquarters Marlborough House, London, UK Official languages English Membership 53 sovereign states Leaders - Queen Elizabeth II - Secretary-General Don McKinnon (since 1 April 2000) Establishment - Balfour Declaration 18 November 1926 - Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931 - London Declaration 28 April 1949 Area - Total...
Such power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for continuous operation.
Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station
Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...
Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ...
Image 1: Natural draft wet cooling towers at Didcot Power Station, UK Cooling towers are evaporative coolers used for cooling water or other working medium to near the ambient wet-bulb air temperature. ...
Control valves are valves used within industrial plants and elsewhere to control operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, flow, and liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from sensors that monitor changes in such conditions. ...
General arrangement of a superheater installation in a steam locomotive. ...
The primary use of large, industrial wet cooling towers is to lower the temperature of the cooling water used in power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industrial facilities. ...
For other uses, see Steam (disambiguation). ...
Figure 1: Components of a centrifugal fan A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases. ...
Three phase systems have 3 waveforms (usually carrying power) that are 2/3π radians (120 degrees,1/3 of a cycle) offset in time. ...
Power line redirects here. ...
A Deaerator is a device for air removal and is used to remove dissolved gases (an alternate would be the use of water treatment chemicals) from boiler feedwater to make it non-corrosive. ...
Figure 1:Three-phase pole-mounted step-down transformer. ...
A Feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to the boiler. ...
A combustion reaction taking place in a igniting match Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames. ...
This article is about machines that produce electricity. ...
Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...
Point of contact between a power transmission belt and its pulley A conveyor belt or belt conveyor consists of two end pulleys, with a continuous loop of material that rotates about them. ...
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Economizer. ...
A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power plant A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. ...
Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...
Air preheater Airpreheater is a general term and represents any heater designed to heat air. ...
A boiler feedwater pump is a specific type of pump used to pump water into a steam boiler. ...
A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a fossil fuel power plant. ...
Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. ...
This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...
Figure 1: Components of a centrifugal fan A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases. ...
A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power plant A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. ...
Bottom ash refers to the non combustible constituents of coal with traces of combustibles embedded in forming clinkers and sticking to hot side walls of furnace during the furnace working. ...
Flue gas stack at GRES-2 Power Plant in Ekibastus, Kazakhstan is 420 meters tall[1] A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. ...
Steam generator
 Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the air preheater (APH) location. (For simplicity, any radiant section tubing is not shown.) The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the elecrical generator. The generator includes the economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and the superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electric precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.[1][2][3] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
A furnace is a device for heating air or any other fluid. ...
Flue gas is gas that exits to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. ...
Figure 1: Components of a centrifugal fan A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases. ...
Air preheater Airpreheater is a general term and represents any heater designed to heat air. ...
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. ...
To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...
Flue gas stack at GRES-2 Power Plant in Ekibastus, Kazakhstan is 420 meters tall[1] A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. ...
For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided. The megawatt (symbol: MW) is a unit for measuring power corresponding to one million (106) watts. ...
Boiler furnace and steam drum The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...
The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils.
Fuel preparation system In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders. A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a fossil fuel power plant. ...
A ball mill, a type of crusher, is a cylindrical device used to grind (or mix) materials like ores, chemicals, ceramics and paints. ...
In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition and compressive forces at the grain size level. ...
Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100°C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles. An oil tanker taking on bunker fuel. ...
The pour point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow under prescribed conditions. ...
Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces. A natural gas processing plant Natural gas processing plants are used to purify the raw natural gas extracted from underground gas fields and brought up to the surface by gas wells. ...
Fuel firing system and igniter system From the pulverized coal bin, coal is blown by hot air through the furnace coal burners at an angle which imparts a swirling motion to the powdered coal to enhance mixing of the coal powder with the incoming preheated combustion air and thus to enhance the combustion.
To provide sufficient combustion temperature in the furnace before igniting the powdered coal, the furnace temperature is raised by first burning some light fuel oil or processed natural gas (by using auxiliary burners and igniters provide for that purpose).
Air path External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.
The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases are handled by the ID fan, fine dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid atmospheric pollution. This is an environmental limitation prescribed by law, and additionally minimizes erosion of the ID fan.
Auxiliary systems
Fly ash collection Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars. Fly ash (one of several coal combustion products, or CCPs) is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion of coal in electric generating plants. ...
Bottom ash collection and disposal At the bottom of every boiler, a hopper has been provided for collection of the bottom ash from the bottom of the furnace. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site. Bottom ash refers to the non combustible constituents of coal with traces of combustibles embedded in forming clinkers and sticking to hot side walls of furnace during the furnace working. ...
Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blow-down and leakages have to be made up for so as to maintain the desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. The impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion and mixed bed exchangers. The final water from this process consists essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions which is the chemical composition of pure water. The DM water, being very pure, becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen absorption. For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ...
General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ...
Hard water is water that has a high mineral content. ...
The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with atmospheric air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by the ejector of the condenser itself.
Steam turbine-driven electric generator
 Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station -
Main article: Turbo generator The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimise the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2126x2126, 1707 KB) Steam turbine rotor produced by Siemens, Germany Photo taken from [1] with the friendly permission of Siemens Germany by Christian Kuhna, E-Mail: christian. ...
Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2126x2126, 1707 KB) Steam turbine rotor produced by Siemens, Germany Photo taken from [1] with the friendly permission of Siemens Germany by Christian Kuhna, E-Mail: christian. ...
A turbo generator is a turbine directly connected to an electric generator for the generation of electric power. ...
A turbo generator is a turbine directly connected to an electric generator for the generation of electric power. ...
A bearing is a component used to reduce friction in a machine. ...
babbitt metal plain bearing shells Babbitt metal, also called white metal, is an alloy used to provide the bearing surface in a plain bearing. ...
Barring gear Barring gear is the term used for the mechanism provided for rotation of the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed (about one revolution per minute) after unit stoppages for any reason. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the turbine steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine starts slowing or "coasting down". When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This deflection is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, thus making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore warps or bends by millionths of inches, only detectable by monitoring eccentricity meters.
But this small amount of shaft deflection would be enough to cause vibrations and damage the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. Therefore, the shaft is not permitted to come to a complete stop by a mechanism known as "turning gear" or "barring gear" that automatically takes over to rotate the unit at a preset low speed.
If the unit is shut down for major maintenance, then the barring gear must be kept in service until the temperatures of the casings and bearings are sufficiently low.
Condenser -
Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes.[4][5][6][2] The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. ...
A Shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. ...
Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. A steam ejector is a device which uses high pressure steam to create a vacuum. ...
See: Rotary engine Rotary International Rotary milking shed rotary intersections This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...
Look up Vacuum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean. Image 1: Natural draft wet cooling towers at Didcot Power Station, UK Cooling towers are evaporative coolers used for cooling water or other working medium to near the ambient wet-bulb air temperature. ...
Deaerator -
Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage section A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal. A Deaerator is a device for air removal and is used to remove dissolved gases (an alternate would be the use of water treatment chemicals) from boiler feedwater to make it non-corrosive. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...
For the hazard, see corrosive. ...
Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other dissoved gases from the boiler feedwater. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.[2][3][7] A Deaerator is a device for air removal and is used to remove dissolved gases (an alternate would be the use of water treatment chemicals) from boiler feedwater to make it non-corrosive. ...
There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary from one manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical conventional trayed deaerator.[7][8] If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers will guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm³/L).[7][9]
Auxiliary systems
Oil system An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms.
At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.
Generator heat dissipation The electricity generator requires cooling to dissipate the heat that it generates. While small units may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air. An electrical generator is a device that produces electrical energy from a mechanical energy source. ...
General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ...
The heat transfer coefficient is used as a fudge factor in calculating heat transfer in thermodynamics. ...
For other uses, see Viscosity (disambiguation). ...
Windage is a force created on an object by friction when there is relative movement between air and the object. ...
Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ...
Flammable or Flammability refers to the ease at which a substance will ignite, causing fire or combustion. ...
General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...
The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than atmospheric pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between the shaft and the seals. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere. Diurnal (daily) rhythm of air pressure in northern Germany (black curve is air pressure) Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point in the Earths atmosphere. ...
The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 22 kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high voltage windings. Demineralized water of low conductivity is used. The volt is the SI derived unit for electric potential and voltage (derived from the ampere and watt). ...
Generator high voltage system The generator voltage ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator high voltage channels are connected to step-up transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical substation (of the order of 110 kV or 220 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid. Figure 1:Three-phase pole-mounted step-down transformer. ...
A 115 kV to 41. ...
The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. In smaller units, generating at 11 kV, a breaker is provided to connect it to a common 11 kV bus system.
Other systems
Monitoring and alarm system Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.
Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plant's control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in an emergency situation. Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the most commonly used rechargeable batteries today. ...
Transport of coal fuel to site and to storage -
Most thermal stations use coal as the main fuel. Raw coal is transported from coal mines to a power station site by trucks, barges, bulk cargo ships or railway cars. Generally, when shipped by railways, the coal cars are sent as a full train of cars. The coal received at site may be of different sizes. The railway cars are unloaded at site by rotary dumpers or side tilt dumpers to tip over onto conveyor belts below. The coal is generally conveyed to crushers which crush the coal to about ¾ inch (6 mm) size. The crushed coal is then sent by belt conveyors to a storage pile. Normally, the crushed coal is compacted by bulldozers, as compacting of highly volatile coal avoids spontaneous ignition. Mohave Generating Station, a 1,580 MW coal power plant near Laughlin, Nevada A fossil fuel power plant is an energy conversion center that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity, designed on a large scale for continuous operation. ...
Surface coal mining in Wyoming. ...
Trucks can refer to several things: The plural of: Truck, the motorized vehicle Truck, other uses of the singular As a name: Trucks was a rock band Trucks is a short story by Stephen King Trucks is a movie based on the Stephen King short story Trucks! is a television...
Self propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stone Note that Barge is the NATO reporting name for the Soviet Tupolev Tu-85 bomber. ...
Colliers were merchant ships that were used to haul coal, also known as The term collier also means coal miner. ...
The crushed coal is conveyed from the storage pile to silos or hoppers at the boilers by another belt conveyor system.
See also The primary use of large, industrial wet cooling towers is to lower the temperature of the cooling water used in power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industrial facilities. ...
Flue gas stack at GRES-2 Power Plant in Ekibastus, Kazachstan is 420 meters tall Flue gas stacks are large vertical pipes, channels or similar structures through which combustion product gases (called flue gases) produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial...
Mohave Generating Station, a 1,580 MW coal power plant near Laughlin, Nevada A fossil fuel power plant is an energy conversion center that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity, designed on a large scale for continuous operation. ...
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface. ...
This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ...
For other uses, see Power station (disambiguation). ...
A steam-electric power plant is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. ...
Schematic diagram of a marine-type water tube boiler A water-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes which are heated externally by the fire. ...
References - ^ British Electricity International (1991). Modern Power Station Practice: incorporating modern power system practice, 3rd Edition (12 volume set), Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-040510-X.
- ^ a b c Babcock & Wilcox Co. (2005). Steam: Its Generation and Use, 41st edition. ISBN 0-9634570-0-4.
- ^ a b Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp (coauthors) (1997). Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-019435-1.
- ^ Air Pollution Control Orientation Course from website of the Air Pollution Training Institute
- ^ Energy savings in steam systems Figure 3a, Layout of surface condenser (scroll to page 11 of 34 pdf pages)
- ^ Robert Thurston Kent (Editor in Chief) (1936). Kents’ Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, Eleventh edition (Two volumes), John Wiley & Sons (Wiley Engineering Handbook Series).
- ^ a b c Pressurized deaerators
- ^ Tray deaerating heaters
- ^ Deaerator Presentation
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